 Prison Hulks in the River Thames London. By State Library of New South Wales, CC BY-SA 3.0 au, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=42773391 Family history researchers are increasingly turning to autosomal DNA (atDNA) to help extend their ancestral knowledge and it is little wonder as it can be an immensely powerful tool. But are folks using atDNA testing to maximum effect? I suspect in a great many cases the answer is no. There are a myriad of reasons why this is the case but it is not my intention to cover them here. Rather, I shall be keeping this post simple by looking only at matches in Ancestry.com and focusing on three basic principles that can greatly enhance your chances of success. I cannot emphasise these three points enough:
Test as Many Family Members as Possible
Memorial Inscriptions in Cornhill Churchyard: These inscriptions were noted in 1918 and by the time these photographs were taken in 1986 much of the writing had already been lost. Today they are barely legible. 'Here Lyeth the body of George Smith who died 8 October 1690. Here rests also the body of his wife Elizabeth who died 2 July 1701' (Stone left and Centre) and 'Here lyeth the body of Robert Smith Portioner in Hornclove who died 22 January 1751 aged 90. Also Margaret his wife who died 27 April 1742 aged 60' (Stone to the right.) Testing relatives acts like signposts or way markers, giving us fixed points from which to start navigating the way through our DNA matches, from known points of shared ancestry towards the unknown. But before dashing off to purchase tests for every aunt, uncle, cousin etc., it is helpful to remember three basic principles to ensure the tests being purchased are relevant to your quest.
It is also important to recognise which relatives are relevant to test for a particular research scenario. For the remainder of this post I shall be using my tree, my DNA matches, and the DNA matches of my relatives who have also tested using an example of a specific paternal line hypothesis which came to light as result of this broader testing policy. It reveals connections to renowned Australian convict Ralph Hush, previously hidden from view due to a smokescreen of ‘selective’ genealogy that without atDNA may have remained undiscovered. I hope it will also illustrate what can be achieved from what essentially started out as set of dismal results. After many years, I still have only 149 matches in the Ancestry database with whom I share 20 cMs of DNA or more. My brother on the other hand has a slightly more respectable 229, that is 80 more individuals for whom Ancestry will currently display mutual matches. Although I have one or two sticking points in my tree, I have no specific ancestor mysteries to solve therefore my interests lie in uncovering all aspects of my ancestral past; but who do I have available to test?
Scenario One – Maternal Line Ancestral InvestigationsMy mother is very much still with us and has tested her DNA. Should I wish to investigate any generation of my maternal line my brother’s DNA will be of no additional benefit. Some of the maternal DNA my brother and I share will overlap and some will be different. Nonetheless, neither he nor myself will have inherited any DNA that our Mother does not carry herself. Nor will our combined DNA reflect the total genetic information carried by our mother. Approximately 25% will inevitably been lost during the recombination process as we were created.  My Mother on the right of the photo, with her twin sister on left. The other living sister is in the middle! Her identical twin will share exactly the same DNA as my mother and therefore will add no new genetic information to the investigation either. Nor will her children, (my first cousins), as the only DNA relevant to the investigation will have been inherited from their mother who is genetically identical to mine. For this reason these cousins will share nearer 25% of their DNA with myself and my brother rather than 12.5% making them genetically half siblings rather than first cousins. My mother’s other living sibling, however, is definitely one to test, as although some of the DNA she has inherited from her parents will be the same as that carried by the twins, some of it will also differ. On the same basis, the DNA of all three children of Mum’s deceased sibling will be relevant as they will carry portions of their mother’s genetic information which, as above, will have significant elements of overlap but crucially also elements that have not been inherited either by Mother or her other siblings. Scenario Two – Paternal Line Ancestral Investigations As my father is deceased, my brother’s DNA will be extremely useful if not vital to any investigation of my paternal ancestry. Although we match on roughly 45 – 52% of our total DNA (both maternal and paternal), the remainder is different. Even so, we are likely still to only reach around 75% of the DNA my father once carried himself. As my father had no siblings and his only first cousin available to test is unwilling to do so, the testing net has been cast wider to encompass his Aynsley-Smith second cousins, three of whom to date have been wonderfully helpful in this regard. Sisters Cathy and Vivie, and their first cousin Dick. Each shares a varying amount of DNA with both my brother and myself.  According to the Shared Centimorgan Project I share below the average (122 cMs) for a second cousin once removed (2c1r) relationship with all three and my brother Jeremy shares above. In fact, the whopping 250 cMs he shares with Dick is above the average (229 cMs) for a straight second cousin relationship, and this has paid real dividends. (It should be noted that the children of my father’s 1st cousin, (my own 2nd cousins) could also be tested but although they are a closer relationship to me, they are genetically further from the ancestral DNA, and in this particular case not as relevant to the investigation.) In terms of my paternal line research, testing to date has provided the following DNA signposts: My brother and I represent the DNA from ALL our father’s ancestral lines and thus could theoretically match with descendants of any of his blood relatives at any point in history. The DNA we share with our 2c1r Aynsley-Smith cousins, however, immediately catapults us genetically back to our 2nd great grandparents on our direct paternal Smith line. This is where the respective ancestral pathways between the 2c1r cousins merges with John Smith (1813 – 1881) and his wife Hannah Aynsley (1837 – 1922). In the absence of any closer relationship, the DNA my brother and I share with our Aynsley-Smith cousins MUST have been inherited through this couple. It therefore represents the DNA inherited from their own respective ancestors.  Interestingly, when our 4th cousin Jane (a 3rd cousin 1 removed to Cathy Vivie and Dick) on the same Smith line is added to the mix, the picture changes somewhat and I become the highest match of the five. Cathy shares no DNA with Jane at all, such is the fickle nature of atDNA!  Matching Mutual Matches to each other Before my brother and Dick tested their DNA with Ancestry, my paternal line research through DNA matching had stalled. I have only one mutual match with Cathy and Vivie which we believe from mutual matches of the mutual match, may relate to ancestors of Hannah Aynsley although we have yet to place them in the family tree.
Step One in the matching process was not to try and establish how these individuals matched my brother and/or Dick, but to try and establish some commonality as to how the matches were related to each other. The main reason for this is that the way in which matches match each other will generally be the way in which they link to the tester, or where the link to the tester springs from. This approach is particularly helpful if the relation that connects matches to your mutual ancestors is not yet in your family tree. Some of Dick and Jeremy’s matches already had small family trees but some invariably had none. As with any aspect of DNA matching it will be necessary to do some legwork, particularly reconstructing matches’ trees and spotting errors in those that already exist; how much work depends on the quality of information you have to work with. It varies every time! Conrad, who had a reasonable tree of 98 individuals was the first port of call. His research very quickly suggested he may share great grandparents or 2nd great grandparents with Mark (who has no tree) in Joseph Hibberson (1812 – 1890) and Mary Ann McCarthy (1831 – 1903) making Conrad and Mark 2nd to 3rd cousins with each other. This was a positive start as the relationship is not too close and date wise, it is also a similar generation to the point at which Dick and Jeremy’s pedigrees collide with John Smith and Hannah Aynsley. Mary Ann McCarthy’s mother was recorded as Phillis Hush, and she in turn was the daughter of Ralph Hush (1784 – 1860) and Margaret Robinson (1784 – 1862). Whilst the name did not appear in my family tree, the surname Hush was ‘ringing bells’.  Bypassing the matches with no trees at all for now, Nancy had a small tree with 7 people from which it was possible to quickly build her pedigree back through her grandmother Margaret Dunlop Hush to a William Hush baptised at Spital in 1778, the same day as his sister Elizabeth Hush. The parents of these two plus an unnamed child in 1779 together with a Margaret Hush baptised at Spittal Presbyterian Chapel in 1781 were Ralph Hush senior and his wife Sarah Taylor, of ‘Long Reach’ (Longridge) whose name DOES appear in my tree. From the fact that Mark, Conrad and Nancy all matched each other it was beginning to look likely that this couple were also the parents of Ralph Hush junior, the father of Phillis above. A further DNA match, ‘Jim’, at 19 cMs to my brother whose line traced back to William Hush 1778 was another mutual match to them all which would further evidence this hypothesis. From my initial investigations to date it appears that the relationships between these four are broadly as follows: Mark & Conrad 2 or 3rd cousins to each other 6th cousin to Nancy 6th cousin to Jim Nancy 4th cousin to Jim Dick & Jeremy 6th cousin once or twice removed to Conrad, Mark, Nancy and Jim Elsewhere, Leonard and Anne appear to be first cousins to each other and their paths converge with ‘Ernie’ who is another match of 22 cMs to my brother (but who does not match Dick) at a James Bell (1817 – 1887) and Christian Hastie (1821 – 1880). As well as Leonard and Anne, Ernie is also a mutual match to Conrad, Mark, Nancy and Elaine, but the potential upward link to John Smith d. 1742 and Elizabeth his wife has not yet been identified.  Distant relationships such as these have a great many ‘steps’ between individuals to establish the common connection or mutual ancestor. This example illustrates just how essential it is to have a family tree that is as broad as it is deep when looking to prove relationships that are hidden way back in the past. Build Out Your Tree in Every Direction As a family we are extremely fortunate in this regard as we have been left a legacy of family memorabilia and generations of extensive research. However, it is still not complete, as I don’t believe any family history ever truly is! There are always more relations to unearth and more information to discover. This branch of our family tree was no exception. Sarah Taylor who appears in my tree was born circa 1757 and is recorded as the daughter of James Taylor and Elizabeth Smith. Elizabeth Smith was the daughter of John Smith of ‘Horncliff Mill’ who was buried at Cornhill on 22 April 1742. It is believed the Christian name of John’s wife was Elizabeth but to date there is no hard evidence to back this up. It is, however, thought most unlikely to have been an Elizabeth Davidson widely reported online, who married a John Smith at Norham in 1694. A Bible, which was printed in 1615, is still in the family’s possession and the first entry for the birth of a child is George smith in 1722. I hardly think the couple would have had their first child after 28 years of marriage! Plus, if Elizabeth was ‘say’ 20 at the time of her marriage, she would have been aged 48 at the time of the birth of her first child! I rather think that the union identified either belongs to either a first marriage, an earlier generation, or a different family altogether as Smith is hardly an unusual name!  Top of Smith line in the tree. Nicholas b.1725 remains a mystery. He wrote his name in the family Bible and then vanishes - thus far without a trace. Perhaps DNA will bring him out of the shadows. In my tree next to Elizabeth Smith’s entry there is a note, ‘see ‘Taylor’ in Sarah Nicholson’s letters’. Sarah Nicholson (1843 – 1932) was an avid correspondent on all things family history and exchanged at least 32 letters with George Aynsley-Smith between 1909 and 20 December 1931, less than a month before her death on 13th January 1932. The Taylor family are mentioned in several of the letters. The first is dated 16th July 1912 in which Sarah wrote: There is a Miss Dodds, elderly, come to live with Mrs Lyle. She came from Bowsden and told Jane [Sarah’s sister] one evening that her grandmother was a cousin (1st cousin) of your grandfather Smith, so I went and saw her. She says her grandmother was a Taylor and they lived in Horncliffe as her grandfather Taylor fell down the bank and was lame ever after. There were 5 sisters Taylor: her grandmother married a Lyle , one married a Sanderson, a weaver at Norham, one a Bolton, one a Roxburgh Loaned and one a name I cannot spell – Falstone – all buried at Norham. Her mother’s family used to go to Spittal Church, so some of their registers will be there… In her next letter of 9th August 1912, she follows up with the following account: Leonard Taylor James Taylor, butcher, Eyemouth ***** Marjorie Taylor m. George Sanderson, weaver Norham ***** Ann Taylor m. Hoffman, a soldier at Berwick. [of whom I have written before in Tennis & a Teapot] ***** Sarah Taylor m. John Huish. He died from burns received at Kimmerston Hall when it was burned down. Sarah died at Berry Hill. [Sarah’s husband was actually called Ralph, not John, and she died at Harperidge, (Donaldsons Lodge) the home of her daughter Sarah rather than Berry Hill (Ford & Etal)] ***** Elizabeth Taylor m. Bolton, Horncliffe and her daughter married a Turner, Horncliffe ***** Margaret Taylor m. William Lyle, Felkington. Her daughter m. Peter Dodds and her granddaughter is now in Horncliffe. It would seem there is some confusion surrounding Sarah Taylor and her spouse, and knowing what I now know, I suspect Ms Nicholson, or her informant was trying their best at a cover up by laying a bit of a smokescreen. The fact of the matter is that Ralph Hush junior, son of Sarah Taylor and Ralph Hush senior was a convicted felon, who narrowly escaped the hangman’s noose, when his sentence of death for stealing sheep was commuted to transportation for life. The case has been written about extensively, much of which can be found online not least in the Australian convict records (which includes some rather spurious information) but also on his own Wiki page!  John Smith owns this book, God give him grace on it to look, And if this book do chance to find, This write will show that it is min, And if he be onest man, He will restore to me again, And I will thank him for his paines, As long as life in me remains, 1690, John Smith with my hand this day at Cornhill April the first. (Transcribed from Family Bible by George Aynsley Smith in 1915) One of these fine days it would be nice to read about some positive antics of ancestral relatives, but in the meantime I will happily take the odd criminal or two, or three as they add a considerable amount of ‘colour’. There is much more digging to do in this tranche of DNA, as I am only just scratching the surface in the Ancestry database, let alone matches elsewhere. It is incredible to think that a second cousin four times removed, who lived so long ago may hold the key to unlocking earlier generations of the Smith family for whom we currently hold just pieces of a much bigger jigsaw. It also shows that no matter how dismal your DNA matches, stick at it, test more family members, build out your tree and work out how those mutual matches are related to each other. It will pay dividends in the end! Useful LinksFor those of you interested in learning more about using DNA for historical research, here are a few links to webinars and instructional videos by my great friend and colleague Michelle Leonard who is renowned the world over as leader in the field of genetic genealogy and as a bit of a 'genes genuis':
How Testing Multiple Relatives Can Turbocharge Your DNA Research - Legacy Family Tree (Free until 2 June 2021). This webinar explains the relevance of testing multiple relatives in more depth, plus a whole lot more! If you don't already subscribe to Legacy Family Tree, access to their HUGE library of top quality webinars past and present comes highly recommended and can be purchased for only $49 per annum. Michelle has no less 22 webinar tutorials amongst in excess of 1500 available in the Legacy Family Tree library. 10% discount available if you subscribe before 1 June 2021 - use code 'turbo'. #TwiceRemoved Investigates DNA Natalie Pithers of Twice Removed interviews expert genetic genealogist Michelle Leonard, who shares her amazing DNA discoveries and family history stories. From identifying the bodies of WWI soldiers to personal feelings on a grandmother that died tragically you, Michelle’s stories give a fresh perspective on using DNA for family history. Making the Most of your Autosomal DNA Test - Family Tree Live 2019, Alexandra Palace Michelle Leonard’s talk gives an overview of how autosomal DNA testing can help you solve mysteries in – and confirm the accuracy of – your family tree. DNA is Dynamite - How to Ignite your Ancestral Research (Michelle Leonard) - Genetic Genealogy Ireland.This is a talk for beginners giving an overview of the basic information required to understand the three main types of DNA testing available for ancestral research. Michelle will explain how each test works and talk you through the first steps you should take once your results arrive. There are also links to a couple of events where you can catch Michelle live in the June newsletter - if interested either contact me or subscribe to the newsletter to keep up to speed with forth coming events.
1 Comment
Kirk Session Records |
![Picture Extract from Gordon Registers re John Waite Pilloried in 1657 Reproduced courtesy of National Records of Scotland: 28 December 1657, Scotland’s People, OPR Births, Gordon [Kirk Session Minutes] 742/10/42.](/uploads/1/7/2/3/17231010/pilloried-in-1657_orig.jpg)
![Picture Extract from Gordon register John Waite in the Piller 1657 Reproduced courtesy of National Records of Scotland: 28 December 1657, Scotland’s People, OPR Births, Gordon [Kirk Session Minutes] 742/10/42.](/uploads/1/7/2/3/17231010/john-waite-enterd-the-piller-1657_orig.jpg)
![Picture Extract from Gordon registers - John Waite released from the piller 1657 Reproduced courtesy of National Records of Scotland: 28 December 1657, Scotland’s People, OPR Births, Gordon [Kirk Session Minutes] 742/10/42.](/uploads/1/7/2/3/17231010/released-from-the-piller_orig.jpg)
 Asna's Grandfather Rabbi Yehuda Leib Freedman c. 1847 . Photo courtesy of https://www.ajrrefugeevoices.org.uk/ |  Painting of Rabbi Yehuda Leib Freedman by Vivien Aynsley-Smith |
Asna’s paternal grandfather (Rabbi Yehuda Leib Freedman) and his family were immigrants who fled from the pogroms in Tsarist Russia and settled in Manchester. Asna said that she believed her mother’s family originally came from Germany and later lived in Latvia. Her mother, Janey Schneider, was born in Riga and came to England in 1892 at the age of 18, together with her mother Sarah Milner, her elder sister Hannah and Hannah’s husband Nachman.
Asna's Uncle and Aunt, Kalman and Btya (nee Thal). Photo courtesy of https://www.ajrrefugeevoices.org.uk/
In 2020, whilst researching my Jewish history, I came across the following article about Rabbi Jerachmiel Cofnas, my second cousin once removed, who was a Rabbi and Shochet in England. He was my mother’s cousin and son of Kalman and Batya who died in the Holocaust.
Asna’s cousin, Rabbi Jerachmiel Cofnas (1912 – 2010). Photo courtesy of https://www.ajrrefugeevoices.org.uk/
An interview for the Jewish Refugee Voices website:
(www.ajrrefugeevoices.org.uk/RefugeeVoices/Rabbi-Jerachmiel-Cofnas)
held in 2020 describes Jerachmiel's experience of coming from Poland to Britain in the late 1930’s.
(www.ajrrefugeevoices.org.uk/RefugeeVoices/Rabbi-Jerachmiel-Cofnas)
held in 2020 describes Jerachmiel's experience of coming from Poland to Britain in the late 1930’s.
'Having been born in 1912 in Kcynia (Deksnia) in Poland in the Vilna Geburnia area he arrived on a temporary permit for the Birmingham Synagogue and he describes his life and offers a fascinating glimpse into Jewish lifestyle at the turn of the century.
Jerachmiel had 2* brothers and 3 sisters. His father was a Rabbi and Shochet (a) and his grandfather, Rabbi Yehudah Leib Freedman, came to Manchester at the turn of the century. Jerachmiel also had uncles in Manchester. After marriage Jerachmiel’s father and mother came to Manchester, where they lived for 10 years and had 4 children but Jerachmiel’s father found life too irreligious for him and eventually moved back to Poland, where Jerachmiel was subsequently born. Jerachmiel’s mother was from Moldetchna, Russia where her father was a Dayan (b). Jerachmiel has vague memories of the First World War and soldiers passing through their small farming community. Life was very hard and they were often hungry. There were about 35 Jews in that farming community but the ground was not fertile and they barely eked a living. They had a shul (c) and led a religious life. He describes the hardships of living in a primitive environment and the intensity of religious life.
Jerachmiel and his siblings had private teachers and attended cheder and then went to Yeshivah (d) for older boys. They family moved from Deksnia to Aishishok and then to Ostryn. Jerachmiel went to Radin where he learnt in the Chofetz Chaim Yeshivah and described his memories of the Chofetz Chaim as well as of other great Rabbis in other Yeshivahs, such as Rabbi Shimon Shkob (Breinsker). Jerachmiel learnt to be a shochet from his father and he took semicha and learnt to be a mohel. His brother went to Chevron Yeshivah and then Manchester where he was a Rabbi in Birmingham and he arranged for Jerachmiel to come to Birmingham in the late 1930s.He says:
‘The place I was born was very small, almost like a kibbutz, there were 35 inhabitants and they were all Jewish. The only non-Jewish person was the one who looked after the flock. Everybody was issued with a plot of land, because there was plenty of land in Poland, not inhabited. All the inhabitants of that place were farmers. My father acted as the Rabbi there and, he was the shochet [kosher butcher].’
He found adjusting to live in England very hard since he was not used to seeing non-religious Jews and he knew no English. His sister-in-law taught him and he attended night school. He helped his brother in the shul and eventually took over from him in the New Synagogue in Birmingham. In 1943 he married Bertha Sternberg from Manchester and they had 3 children. He served as Rabbi, shochet and mohel in Birmingham for 45 years and found he got on well with the shul executives. He always saw the good in people and felt his role as mohel (e) brought him close to the congregants.'
Jerachmiel had 2* brothers and 3 sisters. His father was a Rabbi and Shochet (a) and his grandfather, Rabbi Yehudah Leib Freedman, came to Manchester at the turn of the century. Jerachmiel also had uncles in Manchester. After marriage Jerachmiel’s father and mother came to Manchester, where they lived for 10 years and had 4 children but Jerachmiel’s father found life too irreligious for him and eventually moved back to Poland, where Jerachmiel was subsequently born. Jerachmiel’s mother was from Moldetchna, Russia where her father was a Dayan (b). Jerachmiel has vague memories of the First World War and soldiers passing through their small farming community. Life was very hard and they were often hungry. There were about 35 Jews in that farming community but the ground was not fertile and they barely eked a living. They had a shul (c) and led a religious life. He describes the hardships of living in a primitive environment and the intensity of religious life.
Jerachmiel and his siblings had private teachers and attended cheder and then went to Yeshivah (d) for older boys. They family moved from Deksnia to Aishishok and then to Ostryn. Jerachmiel went to Radin where he learnt in the Chofetz Chaim Yeshivah and described his memories of the Chofetz Chaim as well as of other great Rabbis in other Yeshivahs, such as Rabbi Shimon Shkob (Breinsker). Jerachmiel learnt to be a shochet from his father and he took semicha and learnt to be a mohel. His brother went to Chevron Yeshivah and then Manchester where he was a Rabbi in Birmingham and he arranged for Jerachmiel to come to Birmingham in the late 1930s.He says:
‘The place I was born was very small, almost like a kibbutz, there were 35 inhabitants and they were all Jewish. The only non-Jewish person was the one who looked after the flock. Everybody was issued with a plot of land, because there was plenty of land in Poland, not inhabited. All the inhabitants of that place were farmers. My father acted as the Rabbi there and, he was the shochet [kosher butcher].’
He found adjusting to live in England very hard since he was not used to seeing non-religious Jews and he knew no English. His sister-in-law taught him and he attended night school. He helped his brother in the shul and eventually took over from him in the New Synagogue in Birmingham. In 1943 he married Bertha Sternberg from Manchester and they had 3 children. He served as Rabbi, shochet and mohel in Birmingham for 45 years and found he got on well with the shul executives. He always saw the good in people and felt his role as mohel (e) brought him close to the congregants.'
* Other sources say he had 3 brothers – Levi, Joshua and David
a. Shochet: A person certified by a rabbi or Jewish court of law to slaughter animals for food in the manner prescribed by Jewish law. Pronounced ‘sho sha’
b. Dayan: A Judge
c. Shul: A Synagogue
d. Yeshiva: An orthodox Jewish college or seminary.
e. Mohel: A circumcision practitioner
a. Shochet: A person certified by a rabbi or Jewish court of law to slaughter animals for food in the manner prescribed by Jewish law. Pronounced ‘sho sha’
b. Dayan: A Judge
c. Shul: A Synagogue
d. Yeshiva: An orthodox Jewish college or seminary.
e. Mohel: A circumcision practitioner
History of the Pogroms
Pogrom (or organised massacre or expulsion of a particular ethnic group) first came into frequent use as a term around 1881 after anti-Semitic violence erupted following the assassination of Czar Alexander II.
An article about a Jewish family would not be complete without reference to some of the atrocities perpetrated against them particularly, and just, within living memory. Asna’s friend and correspondent, Phil Casket, wrote at length about his parents being amongst the many families who emigrated from eastern Europe as a result of the pogrom of 1903.
An article about a Jewish family would not be complete without reference to some of the atrocities perpetrated against them particularly, and just, within living memory. Asna’s friend and correspondent, Phil Casket, wrote at length about his parents being amongst the many families who emigrated from eastern Europe as a result of the pogrom of 1903.
Kishinev (modern day Chisinau, Moldova) was one of the major towns in Bessarabia, a desperately poor part of Russia, between Moldavia and Ukraine. It had the highest infant mortality and illiteracy rates in the Russian empire, the fewest doctors and the fewest paved roads. Jews dominated nearly all the region’s towns, including Kishinev, which had a population that was well over one-third Jewish at the turn of the century. It was at this time that the pogroms were directed at the Jewish people in Russia and Eastern Europe.
The most famous pogrom of all began on Easter Sunday 1903 in Kishinev. Rocks were thrown at Jewish shops and the hostilities soon escalated from there. Businesses were ransacked – not one liquor shop was left unscathed. Two-thirds of Kishinev was affected. Entire streets were levelled with 49 Jews left for dead, more than 500 injured, 1300 houses and businesses looted and destroyed and 2000 families left homeless. But it was the violence of the attacks on Jewish people that was so staggering. They were hit with tables, killed with pitchforks and poles, smashed with crowbars. Amongst the many atrocities not suitable to mention here, one man had his eyes gouged out and numerous women and girls were sexually attacked. News of the pogrom and the atrocities soon travelled to America and with Kishinev being near the southern border the news also spread quickly into Europe.
The Kishinev pogrom, which was followed by the Nazi treatment of the Jews in the 1930s and 1940s, forms a very powerful background to many Jewish family’s history and the emigration of Jews out of Europe.
The Holocaust, also known as the Shoah, was the genocide of the European Jews before and during the Second World War. Asna’s uncle, Kalman, who was a Rabbi and Shochet born in Deksznie,Poland, and her cousins David and Sheni Freedman all died in the Shoah. Kalman and Asna’s father Joseph were two of the sons of Rabbi Yehuda Leib Freedman and his wife Miriam Zagar. After Miriam died, he married Minnie about whom little is known other than in a photo probably taken at their wedding which also shows three of his children by his first marriage.
The most famous pogrom of all began on Easter Sunday 1903 in Kishinev. Rocks were thrown at Jewish shops and the hostilities soon escalated from there. Businesses were ransacked – not one liquor shop was left unscathed. Two-thirds of Kishinev was affected. Entire streets were levelled with 49 Jews left for dead, more than 500 injured, 1300 houses and businesses looted and destroyed and 2000 families left homeless. But it was the violence of the attacks on Jewish people that was so staggering. They were hit with tables, killed with pitchforks and poles, smashed with crowbars. Amongst the many atrocities not suitable to mention here, one man had his eyes gouged out and numerous women and girls were sexually attacked. News of the pogrom and the atrocities soon travelled to America and with Kishinev being near the southern border the news also spread quickly into Europe.
The Kishinev pogrom, which was followed by the Nazi treatment of the Jews in the 1930s and 1940s, forms a very powerful background to many Jewish family’s history and the emigration of Jews out of Europe.
The Holocaust, also known as the Shoah, was the genocide of the European Jews before and during the Second World War. Asna’s uncle, Kalman, who was a Rabbi and Shochet born in Deksznie,Poland, and her cousins David and Sheni Freedman all died in the Shoah. Kalman and Asna’s father Joseph were two of the sons of Rabbi Yehuda Leib Freedman and his wife Miriam Zagar. After Miriam died, he married Minnie about whom little is known other than in a photo probably taken at their wedding which also shows three of his children by his first marriage.
Hannah Rabbi Yehuda Freedman Philip (Pinchas) Minnie (2nd wife) Annie
1881 - 1971 1849 – 1925 1879 – 1953 1810 – 1889 1868 – 1945
1881 - 1971 1849 – 1925 1879 – 1953 1810 – 1889 1868 – 1945
Certificates from The Central Database of Shoah Victims’ Names https://yvng.yadvashem.org/
Any family’s history raises the importance of talking to children and grandchildren about family members and prevailing circumstances in earlier days. In the case of the holocaust, it is well known and understood that many of the sufferers were, and their relatives still are, reluctant to talk about the difficult times and just want to forget. It is a relatively recent situation where people do discuss such atrocities with a view to teaching the younger generations and ensuring that such things are never allowed to happen again.
Asna’s family think that she certainly knew a lot more than she ever revealed about those horrendous times but not wanting to upset her children would rarely mention or discuss the issues. Apart from knowing that her father was a ‘Rebbe’ and that times were hard for her mother we knew virtually nothing of her childhood, that is, until we persuaded her to write her ‘memoirs’ which I have included in the article in Borders Ancestry for January 2021.
[1] National Archives, Moving Here – Migration Histories
https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.movinghere.org.uk/galleries/histories/jewish/settling/manchester_jewry_9.htm
[2] British Jews In The First World War, Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue,
https://www.jewsfww.uk/spanish-and-portuguese-synagogue-manchester-3162.php
Jewish Museum , Manchester, https://www.manchesterjewishmuseum.com/
[3] Soup and Reform: Improving the Poor and Reforming Immigrants through Soup Kitchens 1870–1910 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10761-017-0403-8
[4] BBC, Jewish time capsule from 1870s found in Manchester synagogue https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-manchester-54278284
https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.movinghere.org.uk/galleries/histories/jewish/settling/manchester_jewry_9.htm
[2] British Jews In The First World War, Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue,
https://www.jewsfww.uk/spanish-and-portuguese-synagogue-manchester-3162.php
Jewish Museum , Manchester, https://www.manchesterjewishmuseum.com/
[3] Soup and Reform: Improving the Poor and Reforming Immigrants through Soup Kitchens 1870–1910 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10761-017-0403-8
[4] BBC, Jewish time capsule from 1870s found in Manchester synagogue https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-manchester-54278284
Collections of correspondence not only make fascinating reading but are also fantastic sources of information for many historical disciplines, not least family historians. It is important, however, that the contents are correctly interpreted and contextualised, as if not, the result is a misaligned pedigree! The following is taken from the:
Old letters found in Loaned House at the death of Mrs White and taken possession of by Mrs Grace Ann Smith her daughter [wife of George Smith of Ancroft] and by her, handed to me Stephen Sanderson October and November 1865 ...’[1]
The Nicholson, Smith and other associated families such as the Middletons etc., about some of whom I have previously written, intermarried on several occasions and a goodly chunk of Norham’s churchyard collectively bears witness to their passing. Many of the early generations of these families are buried in close proximity to one another.
Smith and Nicholson Headstones in Norham Churchyard. Smith chest tombs to front and Nicholson the larger stones behind on the mound and to the left.
London, 28th January 1716
On the 28th January 1716, a young man wrote home to his family on Tweedside from London. The letter is written in an elegant italic hand which displays evidence of a good education and the content suggests a maturity that is possibly beyond his years.
Extract from document NRO1955/A/3 courtesy of Berwick Record Office.
He was about to embark on a new life in Maryland but had been delayed due to ‘frost so strong here of the like of it has not been seen these many years, our Ships are all fast yet tho we have had a Thaw these eight days’ as London was held in an icy grip. He hoped to be underway within the next fourteen days aboard a ship called 'The Colchester' under the command of a Captain Samson.
'The previous day he had received a letter from his mother which brought news of grave illness in a close family member. She had also sought his advice about a possible apprenticeship for his brother, John, to a Mr Bordley who was currently in Newcastle. Whilst his mother is concerned for John’s welfare & hopes Mr Bordley will be kind to John and provide him with ‘all the necessaries’ during his seven years, (for she was unable to), the writer is more concerned his brother may be hindered by forgetting his Latin! He concedes, however, he would be ‘very glad’ to have his brother near him.
His ‘Master’ is a Merchant who has loaded ‘scarce any thing youl name but he has bought’ aboard ship in preparation of departure. The writer has with him his own parcel containing ‘a dozen Laced Hatts’ on which he has expended the last of his money, perhaps in the hope of trading them for a profit at his destination.
He closed his letter:
Love to my Brother & sisters & all friends, & that God almighty may bless you &
keep you all in good health till I see you again is the earnest prayer of him who
is your most loving Brother
till Death
[note ‘Brother’ written in the singular.]
keep you all in good health till I see you again is the earnest prayer of him who
is your most loving Brother
till Death
[note ‘Brother’ written in the singular.]
The penman’s name was James Nicholson and his letter tells the reader a good deal about himself, his family and their situation in just a few short lines.
Information contained in the letter
Collections such as these are a real boon for historians as they are packed with references to so many aspects of history that extend beyond the interest in the family to whom the letters relate. Following this particular archive of correspondence takes the reader on a series of social, economic, political as well as personal journeys through the eighteenth century on both side of the Atlantic, with all manner of associated hardships and joys.
These topics are not the feature of this month’s blog, however, but the use and analysis of collections such as these and how they can make us better researchers, is a topic planned for a future article for Family Tree Magazine; so keep an eye open for it! Instead, this month’s blog asks just who were the parents of James Nicholson our intrepid traveller in 1716, for he was NOT the son of George Nicholson of Loanend and his wife Mary as widely accepted and documented. [2] Somehow, somewhere a spot of misalignment has clearly occurred!
These topics are not the feature of this month’s blog, however, but the use and analysis of collections such as these and how they can make us better researchers, is a topic planned for a future article for Family Tree Magazine; so keep an eye open for it! Instead, this month’s blog asks just who were the parents of James Nicholson our intrepid traveller in 1716, for he was NOT the son of George Nicholson of Loanend and his wife Mary as widely accepted and documented. [2] Somehow, somewhere a spot of misalignment has clearly occurred!
James Nicholson of South River, Maryland d. 1764 – the Evidence
The ‘established’ pedigree in public circulation records that James Nicholson who emigrated to Maryland in 1716, was the son of George Nicholson (1641 – 26 Jun 1727) of Loanend, Horncliffe, Northumberland and his wife Mary (c.1639 – Nov 1704). Taking this first letter alone and in isolation strongly suggests this simply cannot be for the following reasons:
- In 1716 James is corresponding with his mother. This would have been impossible if his Mother had been Mary as she had died in 1704!
- He has a brother called John. George and Mary are not recorded as having had a son named John.
- As James is discussing John’s future with his mother, and indeed looking for a potential situation for his sister Margaret too, it would suggest that his father is dead. George Nicholson of Loaned did not die until 1727!
When subsequent correspondence is taken into consideration the evidence against the parentage suggested is compounded:
- James continues to correspond with his mother on several occasions well into the 1730s.
- John is mentioned again in letters dated 1717 where it appears he is to be apprenticed as a surgeon and £5 has been awarded from the ‘Dean & Chapter’ towards his costs
- In a letter to his mother dated 1st April 1717, although a date is not given, his father’s earlier death is confirmed to have been the case.
At first glance it would appear the letters, which constitute crucial primary evidence, were not consulted as part of the research into this particular area of the Nicholson family tree. Whilst this is altogether disappointing and of some concern to me, what is most surprising is the fact this glaring error has not been spotted before now, particularly as Philip Aynsley-Smith spent a great deal of time researching the Nicholson family in the late 1980s. For a basic error such as this to have escaped his meticulous research and recording thereof is most out of character. Needless to say on further investigation Philip had indeed spotted the problem and taken steps to have it rectified.
How the errors in the Nicholson pedigree occurred
In an attempt to source the origin of the misalignment a bit of digging in Philip’s records was required. It appears there was more than one single contributory event that led to it appearing in print.
- In the first instance to better understand the various family connections, Philip had transcribed, indexed and footnoted the 32 letters on all things genealogical exchanged between Miss Sarah Nicholson and his father George between 1909 and 1931. In late 1987 he was contacted by a fellow Nicholson researcher, based in Brisbane, Australia. In a letter to Philip dated 7th December 1987 the researcher explained how a chance meeting in Hong Kong by an aunt had led to her introduction to the Reverend Nigel Nicholson. ‘When the Rev. Nigel’s first letter arrived containing a pedigree dating back to the 1600s, [they] were ecstatic.’ She further confirms that:
- Clearly Philip wrote immediately to Rev. Nicholson asking for details of his sources as he received a letter in reply on January 18th 1988. Rev. Nicholson confirmed these sources as follows:
- In a further letter dated 2nd February 1988 Rev. Nicholson refers to a reference in paragraph 2 of Philip’s letter to NRO 1955/A with reference to ‘James Nicholson who emigrated to Maryland…’ He continues:
(Also in note 5 I see he wrote a letter to his mother on 1st April 1717. I have her death recorded as 6.12.1704 aged 65 in Norham Eleanor Mary. Clearly this wrong – Can you spread any light on this?)
- From a further note in the letter he sent Philip a copy of his family tree ‘for comment, alteration and addition …’ Philip clearly obliged:
( Many thanks indeed for your letter of 15th March – and with all the material comments (in Red ink!) and useful extra information that I hadn’t got. I must say thank you for putting me right regarding page 1 – and the generation of George – I clearly was wrong there – and certainly needed red ink. I have amended my tree accordingly.)
Sadly, there is no documentation of exactly which George he writes but given previous correspondence I strongly suspect it was regarding James Nicholson’s incorrect parentage. It appears the amendments may never have been made, as the misalignment of James’ parentage has persisted into the 2003 edition of his book, some six years after Philip’s death.
From this evidence alone it would appear that the researcher in Brisbane has in good faith recreated the pedigree as given to her by the Rev Nigel Nicholson and attached it to another family history published in Australia in 2016.[3] The Rev Nigel Nicholson in turn derived his information from historian John Crawford Hodgson and was unaware of the errors and amendments that should have been made until they were brought to his attention by Philip. As Philip was to discover, this was not the first time Hodgson’s Nicholson pedigree had fallen under the scrutiny of a family member, but that evidence does not belong here.
 | Fortunately, this particular error has had a minimal ‘knock-on effect’. A letter written by Robert Nicholson of Loanend in 1821 states that George and Mary left four children, three sons; Ralph, Joseph and Robert, and one daughter who is unnamed. The current pedigree lists 6, but with the removal of James and his sister Margaret who married a Mr Patterson, the numbers and names would tally. The error, however, still casts doubt over the validity of other areas of the early Nicholson pedigree, which appear to be not unfounded. |
The earlier Generation – Errors & Omissions
The Parentage of William Nicholson gentleman of Berwick upon Tweed died 1690.
The ‘Master’ of whom James Nicholson, our intrepid traveller writes was a William Nicholson of South River, Maryland, a tobacco grower, Merchant and landowner. William’s wife died of measles on 9th March 1717 and William, followed shortly after in 1719. James Nicholson was recorded in his Will as both a servant, friend and as an Executor. He was bequeathed £5 a young horse and a suit of mourning clothes but nowhere was any form of kinship recorded or inferred.[4]
I give and bequeath unto my servant James Nicholson Five Pounds Current money and a young horse formerly belonging to Sam[ue]l Burgess and a Suit of mourning about Four pounds or Five pounds prict Item
William of Maryland was undoubtedly the son of William Nicholson, a wealthy gentleman of Berwick upon on Tweed who died in 1690. He left a detailed Will dated the 15th April of the same year, which names his surviving children and places executorship thereof in the hands of his son William and a nephew Cuthbert Brady.[5] The accompanying inventory dated 20 February 1691 totalled £78 3s 8d.
 | The Pedigree has aligned William senior as a son of another George Nicholson of Loanend who died in 1655 and his wife Eleanor. However, the Will left by this George, written the 22 February 1653/4 is extremely specific with regard to the inheritance of land at Horncliffe in favour of male heirs; he names each of his three sons Robert, George and Ralph, as eldest, second and third son successively and their lawfully begotten male heirs.[6] Only after the possibility of a male heir has been exhausted was the land to pass to the heirs of his daughter Beele. |
Given the attention to detail here and in other clauses of his Will I find it somewhat strange that if he had had a son named William neither he, nor his heirs, were mentioned at all.
The Missing Generation
Missing from the pedigree entirely are two key individuals who nonetheless left evidence of their passage in the form of a probate Bond & Inventory and a Will & Inventory. One dates from 1689 and the other 1690, which when William Nicholson of Berwick is added to the equation, makes a total of three Nicholsons with potential connections to Loanend to die within a twelve-month period. The first absentee is a John Nicholson of Loanend whose Will is dated 5th July 1689 and accompanying Inventory the 29th July of the same year.
[Extract from North East Inheritance Database, DPR/I/1690/N3/2.] A True & perfect Inventory of the goods and Chattels which John Nicholson late of Hornecliff (alias) Horcliffloanend in the County pallatine of Durham yeoman, Taken Vallued & Apprized the nine & twentieth day of July Anno D[omi]ni 1689 by us whose names are hereunder Subscribed
His Will mentions the following 3 children
The second individual who is currently absent from the pedigree is a Robert Nicholson of Loaned who died sometime before his Inventory was prepared on the 14 April.[7]
[Extract North East Inheritance Database DPR/I/1/1690/N5] Aprill the 14th 1690 A True Inventary of All the Goods And Chattels which belong to Robert Nickolson of horclief lonend Lattly Deceased Taken And Aprised by those whose names Are under written This 14 day of Aprill in the year of our Lord 1690
Sadly the relating Bond DPR/I/3/1690/B22 is not available online which might have held clues to his relations through whoever was granted administration of his estate. Is it possible this is Robert the eldest son of George who died in 1655?
Whatever the relationship may have been, it is eminently clear that the individuals in both cases farmed, if not owned, the land at Horncliffe Loanend. As both John and Robert appear after it is stated Loanend was purchased in 1626, they, and their offspring if any, should also feature in the family tree. The fact they do not would suggest that their relationship to one another as well as to others in the early part of the pedigree has not yet been determined. In the limited time spent on the collection to date I can shed no light on the matter either beyond expressing an opinion that they were undoubtedly family members who have, for whatever reason, been overlooked or omitted.
So, who were James Nicholson of Maryland’s Parents?
As to the parentage of James Nicholson who sailed to Maryland in 1716, although not 100% verified I can be a little more certain. A kinship to the Loanend Nicholsons certainly existed at least by marriage, as I strongly believe he was brother to Elizabeth Nicholson, wife of Robert Nicholson of Loanend and one of at least 6 children born to the Rev Alexander Nicholson d.1711 and his wife Alison Home whom he married at Gordon in 1685.
Top Tip!
Be cautious in taking relationships too literally; a brother may mean brother-in-law or sometimes even a more distant relative, and a cousin may be far more removed than first. Customs surrounding forms of address and terms of endearment differed from what we know today, so it is as well to be on your guard to prevent misalignments appearing in a family tree.
(If you are interested in my transcripts of the Wills mentioned in the above post please contact me for copies.)
[1] The original letters and other documents in this collection are deposited at Berwick Record Office NRO 1955/A.
[2] The Rev Canon Nigel Nicholson & Mrs Rosemary Kitson, ‘Nicholson being a Compilation of Family trees of Nichsolon and Nicolson …’, Gateshead, 2003, Vol II. p.554; Michael White, ‘19th Century Pioneer:
Frank Villeneuve Nicholson Family in Australia’, Appendix I - George Nicholson of Loanend down to Frank Villeneuve Nicholson (1655 to 1898) Compiled by Kaye Mobsby p.12, Brisbane 2016; Circa 70 Ancestry Online Trees; etc.
[3] Michael White, ‘19th Century Pioneer: Frank Villeneuve Nicholson Family in Australia’, Appendix I - George Nicholson of Loanend down to Frank Villeneuve Nicholson (1655 to 1898) Compiled by Kaye Mobsby p.12, Brisbane 2016
[4] England & Wales, Prerogative Court of Canterbury Wills, 1384-1858 for Gulielmi Nicholson, PROB 11: Will Registers, 1713-1722, Piece 572: Shaller, Quire Numbers 1-48 (1720)
[5] North East Inheritance Database DPR/I/1/1691/N4/1-2 & DPR/I/1/1691/N4/3
[6] North East Inheritance Database DPRI/1/1664/N3
[7] North East Inheritance Database DPR/I/1/1690/N5/1-2
[2] The Rev Canon Nigel Nicholson & Mrs Rosemary Kitson, ‘Nicholson being a Compilation of Family trees of Nichsolon and Nicolson …’, Gateshead, 2003, Vol II. p.554; Michael White, ‘19th Century Pioneer:
Frank Villeneuve Nicholson Family in Australia’, Appendix I - George Nicholson of Loanend down to Frank Villeneuve Nicholson (1655 to 1898) Compiled by Kaye Mobsby p.12, Brisbane 2016; Circa 70 Ancestry Online Trees; etc.
[3] Michael White, ‘19th Century Pioneer: Frank Villeneuve Nicholson Family in Australia’, Appendix I - George Nicholson of Loanend down to Frank Villeneuve Nicholson (1655 to 1898) Compiled by Kaye Mobsby p.12, Brisbane 2016
[4] England & Wales, Prerogative Court of Canterbury Wills, 1384-1858 for Gulielmi Nicholson, PROB 11: Will Registers, 1713-1722, Piece 572: Shaller, Quire Numbers 1-48 (1720)
[5] North East Inheritance Database DPR/I/1/1691/N4/1-2 & DPR/I/1/1691/N4/3
[6] North East Inheritance Database DPRI/1/1664/N3
[7] North East Inheritance Database DPR/I/1/1690/N5/1-2
Just how well do, or did we know our parents, grandparents, or indeed any of our forebears? This month’s blog demonstrates the importance of memoir and recording first-hand experiences, recollections and reflections for future generations. It is written by my second cousin once removed Catherine (Cathy) Aynsley-Smith and is an extract taken from Chapter 8 of her family history book which is headed FREEDMAN AND COFNAS ANCESTRY, “My Mother’s Story”.
Cathy, her sister Vivie and I share mutual ancestors in John Smith (1813 – 1881) and Hannah Aynsley (1837 – 1922). They are granddaughters of my great-granduncle George Aynsley-Smith senior (1886 – 1942), (who along with his eldest son Philip, were the compilers of so much of our mutual paternal line family history), and his wife Jeanne Eugenie Mournetas (1878 – 1947). Their father was the second child of three sons and one daughter born to the couple, George Aynsley-Smith junior, (Dick), ‘a nickname he had been given when very young by the family cook due to his love of spotted-dick pudding. Or so the story goes.’ Their mother was Asna Freedman, and this is her story …
Asna Freedman pictured in 1934.
Extracts from ‘My Mother’s Story’
My mother, Asna Freedman, was born to Jewish parents Joseph Freedman and Jane (Janey Myers) Schneider at 57 Lord Street, Cheetham, Manchester on 4th May 1914. (Lord Street was also sometime home of the Jewish Soup Kitchen.) She was the youngest of eight children born to the couple. Her eldest brother was Abraham (Abe) born in 1896. He was followed by a sibling in 1901 who died in 1911 and whose name is not known, then Miriam (1897), Golda (1900) who died aged 17 from the world-wide influenza epidemic. There followed Frank (1903), Sally (1905), David (1909) and lastly Asna (1914).
The little I know about her early life and her family comes from the odd snippets of information she told me and from notes that she wrote in later life. Some of her life experiences are described in the ‘diaries’ that she wrote at my request when she was in her eighties. Much of that information was new to me as she rarely mentioned her childhood and in fact, the diaries tell far more than I can. They give an interesting flavour of various parts of her life which I have copied verbatim.
Memories of her young days written by Asna in 2001
Cathie once suggested I write down incidents in my life as they came to mind & this morning, Sept 18th 2001, I am doing just that. I received a notice in the post this morning from the BHA (British Humanist Assn) about a Xmas holiday in Buxton, so memories came flooding back.
My mother still only in her forties suffered from Osteo-Arthritis, then known as just Rheumatism, & each year went to Buxton for a month to 'take the treatment' hers being mainly mud applications & drinking the Spa water. The year before the death of my father he looked after me at home, but after his death when I was 8 years old my mother took me with her for possibly 2 years running until she could no longer afford the treatment though we stayed in a simple little flat.
After arrise (sic) & settling in we would go shopping, my mother buying a selection of young vegs then coming into season & would make a soup containing new carrots, peas, beans pots etc cooked slowly in milk; [we buy bread?] she always bought me a treat – a large bun of choux pastry bun (as my pudding) filled with fresh cream from a wonderful bakery.
Our next journey was down to the Pump where she would produce her little silver 'collapsible' cup to drink the so called healing waters. I waited in a queue of children all anxious to man the pump & each of us would be allowed to 'serve' a few people.
 Asna Freedman's stainless steel collapsible mug used to take the 'Buxton Waters'. |  Asna Freedman's stainless steel collapsible mug used to take the 'Buxton Waters' extended. |
Although pumping was quite difficult for small children nevertheless we wouldn't forego this pleasure which I looked forward to daily.
During the months stay we would go to the Buxton Opera House to see a musical two I remember, No No Nanette, Maid of the Mountains. Perhaps we also saw some plays which I don't remember as my mother loved the theatre & Cinema. At home we saw a film every Sat. evening possibly in the winter when the Sabbath ended in time for the film. The stars were Rudolf Valentino, Paula Negrie [Pola Negri] , Gloria Swanson & of course silent until the first 'talkie' with Al Johnson. I loved all this so I suppose my liking for the Arts started then. At about the age of 12 my brother David bought a Record Player – a free standing console model, where the records were kept in the cupbd of lower part, & then I heard my first opera arias on 78s. The Rigoletto Quartet + excerpts from Cav & Pag. etc. David also took me to hear the Henry Wood Concerts & once to a Jazz Concert with a famous American Saxophone player. He also took me to several plays – B. Shaw's mostly, by the M/c Rep. Co. which produced many actors later to become well-known in the London theatres. So, despite my lack of formal higher education through straightened circumstances I had a rich cultural childhood (including books) not always available to children in poor to moderate circumstances & I think this in part is due to Jewish people wanting to enrich their lives, by self-education not unlike the Welsh & Irish.
Asna’s notes continue:
Recollections 26.10.93
… My childhood wasn’t easy but I was ‘lucky’ in having access to good books & being influenced by three of my older siblings who were broadminded & more radical. Another influence in my early teens, when joining a friend to help in her father’s shop (lock-up shop with no living accommodation) in a poor Salford district was the sight of real poverty. Children with no shoes (Phil Casket whose family were poor remembers this & himself wore none in early years) & torn clothes. The mothers would pay 1/-d or up to 2/-d (todays 6p & 10p) every week & buy some essential piece of clothing & be forever in debt. Streets were dirty & houses unkempt & men and some women drank heavily using money (? 1d pint for beer at that time) they could ill afford & which should have been spent on food. But who could blame them, as now, there was no way out of the poverty trap – (the recession of the 1920s & the 1926 General Strike). My friend’s father had made good profits from selling surplus army clothing after the 1914-18 War & bought himself a nice house - small but comfortable in a pleasant M/c district. He didn’t make the huge profits that many did during the war years & worked hard. However, these differences affected my way of reasoning & I came to the conclusion that the ‘System’; had to be changed & thus became a Socialist.
Sally was my biggest influence & I suppose being without a father from the age of 8 I ‘looked up’ to the older members of my family. My Mother’s religious beliefs didn’t influence me at all & although my father was religious & a keen Zionist, he was politically a Socialist believing in the formation of the Kibbutz in Israel. (What was then Palestine). He took no part in British politics as his endeavours were solely propelled to the causes of Zionism & not long before his illness & death was making plans for our emigration to Palestine. He went to Berlin to have an operation for removal of cataracts in both eyes, the surgery being more reliable there in those days. But even so he needed long convalescence which unfortunately he did not take and following his return home contracted meningitis and died a week later.
Asna's greatest influence, her sister Sally photographed circa 1926
Asna often talked about days spent rambling in the Derbyshire countryside with other friends. Rambling clubs provided not just recreation but an escape from the city and poverty around them but also an environment where they could discuss social and political issues whilst enjoying the freedom of the moors.
In her teens she had the intellectual stimulation of literature, politics, religion and social injustice. The latter created a desire for a solution which eventually brought her and many others to communism. Having lost her father at a very young age maybe weakened the pressure to conform which was accepted by other Jewish youngsters who were unwilling to marry out or to smoke in the street on Shabbos [the Sabbath]. Those who became communist often described themselves as ‘rebels.’
I remember my teenage years at home in St Albans, when we would have many political discussions and Asna would often mention like-minded friends (Beck Caskett and Pearl Binder) and relatives (Sally and Frank) who influenced her political thinking even though she was a lot younger. I cannot remember my mother ever talking about anti-Semitic attitudes whilst she was at school and in fact she her sister Sally, and many others moved to London looking for other social ‘beliefs’, considering them being more relevant than religion. The explanation as to why so many Jews were attracted to communism in the 1930s was that the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) was opposed to fascism and in communism they found a form of self-defence against the fascists.
Asna continues ...
… In those days in England children could leave school at 14 and even though I was told by my Headmistress I had a “promising future” and was offered a place at Manchester Grammar School if I stayed on, I decided to leave. The Depression and General Strike of 1926 made things very difficult for my mother and so I took employment in an office and went to evening classes to continue my education and also did a good deal of reading becoming both a socialist and atheist in the process.
 Asna Freedman with husband George Aynsley-Smith (Dick) | But I remember her telling me on many an occasion how this curtailment of her formal education disappointed her and affected her future life. In the 1920s her sister Sally went to work in London and some years later at the age of nineteen Asna left Manchester to follow her. Due to the poverty she saw in her childhood she developed an interest in politics and through attending political meetings and demonstrations she met my father Dick (George Aynsley-Smith junior). When in her eighties she would often talk about their life together and describe how they ‘had 44 happy years together’ and explain how he came from a Quaker family but that as ‘he too felt the same about religion and politics as I did so that there was no disharmony on these issues, nor on any others that matters, such as the emancipation of women, equality in the home and workplace etc.. I felt very bereft when he died over 16 years ago and still do.’ |
Sadly, her marriage to Dick, who was not Jewish, displeased her elder brother Abe - who was acting in loco parentis at the time - and hence caused her separation from most family members. Asna used to talk quite often about how upset she was that Abe objected to her marrying my father and rent his clothes when she said she was marrying out. There was a common belief that Jewish parents treated ‘marrying out’ like death and would sit in mourning for the child.
Recollections 20.11.93
All sorts of thoughts pass through my mind in the morning and today, for some unknown reason, my mind went back to my brother, Abe.
Strange. I cannot recollect anything about him before he married in 1921. He was in the Army in the ‘Great War’ (1914-1918) & I seem to remember him in ‘Kahki’ (sic) uniform on his return but no other memories of him at home until I used to visit him & his wife, Emma, at their home & even then only after the birth of their first daughter, Eileen, when I was 8 years old. I remember that Emma made my first gym slip when I started secondary school & seemed bad-tempered at the fittings & ‘ticking me off’ for various reasons.
Abe Freedman's marriage to Emma Simon in June 1921. (Asna bridesmaid front left) Wonderful example of 1920s wedding photo and fashion - brides headdress, very large bouquets, serious faces and lack of hats for women.
However, I digress, as I was actually thinking of Abe in a much later period in connection with myself. I went up to M/c to tell him of my intended marriage which he opposed on grounds of religion (as I knew my mother would too) but said if I intended to go ahead – which I did – advised me not to disclose this to my mother & I followed his advice – perhaps I should say his wishes – which I’ve always regretted. I’m sure she would eventually have become reconciled (she had met Dick in London & when I tentatively brought up the question of our marrying, put the same religious objection though she thought ‘he was very nice’ & I am certain that knowing & seeing Cathie, my first baby, would have given her some pleasure in the last few months; she died in Aug ’43 without knowing I was married or of Cathie’s existence. Something I cannot remember without pain. What surprised me was being warmly received by both Abe & Emma when I called some months later with Cathie whilst staying in M/c with Sylvia & Maurice for a few weeks during the heavy bombing. After that first ‘reconciliation’ we remained on amicable terms, but didn’t meet again only communicating by letter & a phone call – before mother’s death.
 Asna's father Joseph Freedman |  Asna's mother Janey Schneider |
As a child in a Jewish family Asna was well aware of the hardships endured and the religious practices that were so important in her upbringing. In her diaries in 2001 she wrote:
The diaspora of Jewish people to Europe was to escape from the persecution that beset them continually in Russia and Eastern Europe. But they had a hard time in the countries where they settled with only low paid, mostly manual work, open to them. There were certain periods over the centuries where they did enjoy freedom to pursue their cultural and professional careers as in Spain and Germany and for a short time in England but these periods always passed with further oppression and discrimination and so they fled to whichever country would take them. In the time of the Spanish Inquisition many Jews converted to Christianity otherwise it meant death, unless they could escape and some came to England.
I remember them in Manchester when I was a child as their religious practices were slightly modified allowing them to use transport on Saturday (the Jewish Sabbath) and as many were quite affluent having brought their wealth with them from Spain, we saw them arrive to their special Synagogues in their cars – quite a phenomenon in those days of the early 20s. The Synagogues were called ‘Reform Synagogues’. I remember when a young child going to our own Synagogue and sitting in the Balcony where all the women sat – we had a good view of all the happenings below. At a certain part of the Service the Scrolls – “Torahs” were brought out of their little Ark and carried round, their coverings were of white satin, which I thought was lovely!
I was told by Sally that my parents experienced hard times but always ‘pulled through’. I don’t know a great deal about my parents’ early married life but Jewish immigrants had a hard time and in those days it was difficult for them to work in the professions or follow a career, the only work being available was manual (in the tailoring trade mostly) or in business.
I believe at one time my father ventured into the coal business, having one employee to deliver, but he was no businessman and was a soft touch when families were badly off with no heating in winter and did not insist on payment. This venture didn’t last long! As my father’s attempt in business wasn’t very successful and having been a teacher in the Jewish Community in Russia, he started a small school. By the time I was born he had been teaching Hebrew in a room in the Synagogue which I visited with messages or whatever for my father. Whilst waiting till there was a break I’d sit and watch and listen but not understand apart from a few everyday words. Girls were not included in this education as primarily it was to prepare the boys for their Bar Mitzva at the age of 13. My father was called a Rebbe i.e. teacher & my Grandfather was a Rabbi – the Religious Head (Minister) of the local Jewish community.
The boys came after their English school-day finished and for a full day on a Sunday. My Father also officiated in the local Synagogue and helped my Grandfather in his duties as a Rabbi both were held in high regard by the local Jewish community in our area – Jewish people seemed to have lived in various areas of Manchester by the time I came on the scene.
Freedman family with Miriam and Abe to the rear, Asna in the centre foreground flanked by her parents Joseph and Janey
In 1998 Asna wrote a little about her parents and their social and religious beliefs. Her paternal grandfather (Rabbi Yehuda Leib Freedman) and his family were immigrants from the pogroms in Tsarist Russia and settled in Manchester. Asna believed her mother’s family originally came from Germany and later lived in Latvia. Her mother, Janey Schneider, was born in Riga and came to England in 1892 at the age of 18 together with her mother Sarah Milner and other family members. With Holocaust Memorial Day having just passed on 27th January, the family’s story and how the Holocaust, also known as the Shoah, touched Asna’s family too, together with Cathy’s discoveries regarding the wider family and its legacy will be continued in part II.
Asna Freedman's two daughters Cathy and Vivie Aynsley-Smith photographed in 2013
In the meantime I hope you have enjoyed this brief glimpse into Asna’s memories of her younger self and touching recollections of the relationships with her family particularly her own mother. Without the diaries her feelings, emotions, joys and regrets, which say so much about her as a person would have been lost. I know many of you have taken the opportunity presented by ‘lockdowns’ to commit your own memories to paper, but if you are yet to do so I would urge you all to get writing!
This month’s blog is in response to an increasing number of requests, queries and comments I receive concerning surnames. The most common queries involve spelling, or why ancestors can’t be found, but with more and more men testing their Y-DNA either to solve a mystery of an unknown male ancestor or to uncover more about the origins of their patrilineal or direct male line, test results are throwing up more questions than ever; Why do I not know any of the matches with my surname, why are there different surnames in my matches, why is my surname not amongst my matches.
The Coronation of King Harold, Scene 29, Bayeux Tapestry. Wiki Commons
Surname Spellings
Questions or comments regarding the spelling of surnames continue to crop up regardless of countless blogs and articles on the topic. I would be rich indeed if I had a penny for every time I heard, they can’t be related as their name is spelled differently! Therefore, although one rule by no means fits all and there are always exceptions, I shall try to set out a few pointers.
Top Tips regarding Surnames in Documentary Evidence
- What is the period? English spellings were largely phonetic – the first dictionary of standardised English language was published in 1755, but even afterwards words continued to be written as they sounded or were pronounced.
- Was the individual/family literate? Look for signatures on supporting records – have they been handwritten or substituted by a mark? If the latter, then the spelling of the surname would have relied on the literacy and interpretation of the clerk or scribe recording the event.
- Were the family foreign or from outside the area? This also includes folks from other parts of the British Isles and Ireland. Unfamiliar sounding names including those from Ireland and Scotland frequently appear with variant spellings that search engines don’t pick up. Think phonetically, use regional dialects and accents, put yourself in place of the clerk or scribe, be generous in your use of wildcards, and beware the Anglicised Scot or Irishman who has dropped his ‘Mac’! (NB. Beyond the Borders in Scotland, lookout for names in Gaelic)
- ‘The family fell out and/or they changed their name to distinguish between different branches’. Hmmm, whilst there may well be instances where this may be the case, I have yet to clap eyes on documented evidence beyond family legend having been committed to paper. It is far more likely that the spelling became standardised in different places at different points in time but actually has the same point of origin.
Y-DNA - The Test for Surnames
Death of King Harold in 1066 taken from a scene on Bayeux Tapestry. Wiki Commons
Whilst the numbers of men testing their Y-DNA remains relatively small, the test is increasing in popularity and the numbers of testers is increasing rapidly. The relative paucity of testers accounts for one of the most common reasons for a lack of matches sharing a surname. The environment and way in which results are presented is also rather different to at-DNA and gives rise to other specific questions relating to surnames, or perhaps lack of them!
Y-DNA is the definitive test for ‘surnames’ as it is limited to male testers only as it passes solely from father to son and is neither inherited nor carried by women. It works by testing either STRs (Short Tandem Repeats) or SNPs (Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms) on the Y chromosome. The introductory test for investigating a surname using Y-DNA is the STR test which tests numbers of STR markers 12, 37, 67 or 111. The higher the number of markers tested the more accurate the prediction becomes regarding in which generation the match with another tester has occurred.
The Family Tree DNA programme has parameters for returning potential matches based on the number of differences (Genetic Distance) that occur on markers between two testers, subject to the level of markers tested.
In such a way matches which differ on more than one marker in 12 tested, two in 25, four in 37 tested etc., will not be shown as matches at those levels. However, the more markers tested the greater the tolerance of differences. By the time 111 markers are tested, matches with up to 10 differences (a genetic distance of 10) will be returned. However, if 5 of these genetic differences occurred on the first 37 markers tested, that particular match will not show in the returns of the tester at that level of testing.
Whilst Y-DNA can predict the closeness of a relationship, it is unable to pinpoint the exact individual in the same way that autosomal DNA testing can. The FTDNA programme uses genetic distance (GD) or the differences, and on which markers they have occurred (some markers mutate far quicker than others) to estimate the number of generations that separate the tester and a match from their most recent common ancestor (MRCA). This is returned using the ‘Time Predictor’ or the ‘TiP’ tool which gives the time frame in generations. A generation usually equates to between 20 and 30 years, so by saying a generation equates to approximately 25 years, and, multiplying this by the number of generations predicted by the FTDNA TiP tool, will give an approximate timeframe to MRCA in years. See example from Pearcy DNA Project below:
Pearcy (and variant spellings) DNA Project
As reported back in August, David Pearcy tested his Y-DNA in order to delve into his deeper paternal Ancestry. He had one very interesting match with the variant surname of Piercy, whose family were known to have come from a similar geographical area in Northumberland. Initially the match had only tested to 12 markers, but crucially there were no differences at this level. The match then extended the number of markers tested to 111. This returned a genetic distance (GD) of 5. This equates to 5 differences, 1 of which occurred between 12 and 25, another between 25 and 37, a further 2 appeared between 37 and 67 and the final difference occurred between 67 and 111 markers.
Using the TiP tool and extending the results displayed to every generation rather than grouping them to four years enables a greater degree of ‘estimation’ as to how many generations have passed since the MRCA lived.
Using a percentage of between 98 – 99.9% (but may be more, or may be less accurate) places their most recent common ancestor somewhere between 16 and 22 generations, or very approximately, to have lived 400 & 550 years ago.
For me personally, this is quite exciting as it suggests the Pearcy family had an established surname and were living in a close geographic area around Wooler & Ford in Northumberland around the time of the Battle of Flodden in 1513. To draw any more meaningful conclusions however, we need a far bigger Y-DNA sample from male Pearcy/Piercy/Percy & other variant spellings from around the globe. David and I have created a Pearcy DNA project through Family Tree DNA so if you are a Pearcy, or know a Pearcy then please either get in touch or point them in our direction. It is open to all, not just Y-DNA testers, and is completely free to join.
https://www.familytreedna.com/groups/pearcy-piercy-dna-project/about
(Please note, you will also need to sign-up to Family Tree DNA to join the project if you have not already done so. You do NOT need to purchase a DNA test from FTDNA to join. Registration is completely free of charge at www.familytreedna.com/autosomal-transfer & you do not need to transfer your atDNA if you do not wish to.)
https://www.familytreedna.com/groups/pearcy-piercy-dna-project/about
(Please note, you will also need to sign-up to Family Tree DNA to join the project if you have not already done so. You do NOT need to purchase a DNA test from FTDNA to join. Registration is completely free of charge at www.familytreedna.com/autosomal-transfer & you do not need to transfer your atDNA if you do not wish to.)
Top Tip – The Genetic Distance in Y-DNA Test Results
The Genetic Distance figure given by FTDNA reflects the number of DIFFERENCES that have occurred between two testers, NOT the number of generations. To find the estimated time lapse to the most recent common ancestor shared with a match, USE the TiP TOOL. This gives the estimated time lapse in generations. To approximate this in years, multiply by 25.
Note the two non Pearcy surnames. Do Pearcy & Pearson have the same surname origins perhaps?
Common Question - Matches of the same surname as myself match me at 12 markers but not 111
The most common reason for this is that the genetic distance becomes too great to be relevant and therefore the match at 12 markers is dropped from the match list at higher levels of testing. Another very common reason and one which is easily overlooked is that the match hasn’t actually tested to the same number of markers as yourself.
Top Tip – Check the level the match has tested to.
Look at matches with the same surname as yourself and check the level that match has tested to. This information appears after the match’s name. If they have tested to a much lower level than yourself this may be one reason why they do not appear at a higher level. This can be remedied by the match raising the number of markers they have tested. In most cases there is no need to retest and the sample supplied for initial testing can be used.
Y-DNA Matches with Different Surnames
Any form of DNA testing carries the risk of unearthing unwelcome family secrets but there are many other reasons why any DNA test may not yield the results expected. Second families, adoption and illegitimacy are just a few. In Scottish clan projects, DNA that fails to match with the surname of the chief also results in unnecessary disappointment for some. Whilst kinship was at the core of the clan system, many clan followers or dependents adopted the name of the ruling family even where there was no blood tie.
Daughtering Out & Inheritance
Another reason surnames may not reflect those expected can be due to a change of name. Historically this sometimes occurred amongst landed families when it became extinct in the male line, in other words ran out of sons or other immediate male relatives of the same surname. Those inheriting the land or heritable estate may have descended down the female line and changed their name on inheritance. A change of surname to reflect maternal line inheritance is a topic I have touched on before, when Thomas Wood assumed the surname of his uncle Shafto Craster on inheriting the estate in 1837. (The Christian name Shafto itself being derived from a surname.)
There are also instances where younger sons in landed families have inherited from mothers or grandmothers and have relinquished their patrilineal surname in favour of the female line from which they have inherited. A prime example of this is John Ogle, (younger son of Robert Ogle d.1410) who on inheriting the castle and manor of Bothal brought to the Ogle family by his grandmother Helen Bertram adopted the surname Bertram himself. Helen was herself a sole heiress so John in adopting her patrilineal surname for himself resurrected a line which had itself become dormant in the male line.
The most common reason a Y-DNA match does not share a surname, however, is that it predates the introduction of surnames themselves.
Surname Origins
As research progresses back in time it inevitably reaches a point where surnames cease to exist or have not followed the hereditary pattern of today. Hereditary surnames, or where the same surname passes unchanged down through subsequent generations in the male line, came into use following the Norman invasion of 1066. Before this time, and indeed in some places for some time afterwards, ‘surnames’, second names ‘cognomen’ or ‘bynames’ followed the Anglo-Saxon tradition which was more akin to an ‘identifier’ within a community and changed with every passing generation. They were often drawn from places names, topographical features, occupations, patronymics (son of ‘x’), less commonly matronymics (son of ‘x’ female), nicknames and personal idiosyncrasies.
Entry for Plesingho, Essex for Humphrey 'aurei testiculi' Tenant in Chief, more commonly referred to in the vernacular as Humphrey 'Goldenbollocks'. Image Courtesy of Professor J.J.N. Palmer through the Open Domesday website.
As the first ‘national’ survey undertaken in post-Norman Britain, the names recorded in the Domesday Book are therefore indicative of the early surnames in use at that time. An interesting study into Anglo-Saxon bynames recorded in the Domesday Book by medieval historian Thijs Porck, can be found at Anglo-Saxon bynames: Old English nicknames from the Domesday Book. The contents of the Domesday Book can be found online at the ‘Open Domesday’ with more information about at ‘The Hull Domesday Project’.
The Domesday survey was neither representative of the population (as it only listed those with landholdings), nor did it encompass the whole of England. As can be seen from the interactive map on the Open Domesday website, Northumberland and Durham were notable exceptions. The earliest ‘Domesday’ equivalent for the region is the ‘Boldon Buke’ a survey undertaken approaching 100 years later in 1183 on behalf of the Bishop of Durham, Hugh Pudsey. Surnames’ of any recognisable kind are absent, with those few individuals who have been named either identified as a ‘son of’ (filius) ‘Richard son of Ulkil’, ‘de’ meaning of a place ‘Adam de Thornton’ & ‘Wynday de Grindon’ or by a nickname or byname, ‘Elfald Langstirap’.
Although the practice of hereditary surnames had been adopted and was in common usage in England by the mid fourteenth century, the north and in particularly the areas of the former Marches with Scotland were slower to follow suite. Dr Jackson Armstrong of Aberdeen University has made an in-depth study into matters of Lordship, Kinship and Surnames along the English border during the fifteenth century in his book ‘England’s Northern Frontier, Conflict and Local Society in the Fifteenth-Century Scottish Marches’. His findings and examples supporting the notion and depth of ties on kinship make fascinating reading and illustrate the significance of collateral paternal as well as maternal line inheritance. (I appreciate the book is not cheap, but for those of you serious about your ‘Borders Ancestry’ this brand-new book comes highly recommended. Part II will be of particular interest to those researching the riding ‘Surnames’ associated with the Border Reivers.)
Image of Chest in which the Domesday Books were stored from circa 1600. Courtesy of The National Archives E31/4
In his new study Dr Armstrong has used 15th century Gaol Delivery books as sources and evidence of use of hereditary surnames. He found that
‘The later Middle Ages were a transitional period in which older bynames co-existed with newer hereditary surnames as a type of cognoma. Consequently, it is not always possible to distinguish one from the other.’[1]
As outlined earlier, by-names were drawn from ‘occupations, topographical features, toponyms the body and personal characteristics, animal names and interpersonal relationships denoting kinship (and so taking the suffix -cousin, -son or -daughter) among numerous other potential sources and combinations. Employment was one such source …’[2] Throughout the book Armstrong uses clear and interesting examples to illustrate his findings:
- Gibbe Roderfordman for a servant of Gilbert Rutherford
- John Twysontheday, for harper named for an ‘event’
And uses of patronymic naming patterns used simultaneously alongside by-name surnames
- William Andreson of Tynedale alias William Stockhalgh the son of Andrew Stockhalgh
- Little William Robson son of Robert Joly
And of double patronymic
- John Johnson the son of John Thomson
Although Armstrong notes that these types of combinations are more uncommon in east of the region. He further notes examples of compound names
- William Robynson Hynne
- Richard Jackson Lambee
‘as reasonable to conjecture, described a family relationship by adding a patronym to a hereditary surname in order to assist with identification’.[3]
By todays way of thinking the use of middle names may suggest the maternal line surname, but clearly in this 15th century context this is not the case. Extreme care must therefore be taken before drawing conclusions on early lines of decent, particularly where patronymic naming patterns are used.
‘Tithes’ – nearly everyone has heard of this historic form of taxation and associates them to with payments to the Church, but what exactly were tithes and why are their records so valuable to historical research?
Peter Breughal the younger. The collection of Tithes circa 1616. Wiki Commons
A ‘tithe’, literally meaning one tenth, at the inception of the tithing system in the 6th – 8th centuries, was essentially a tax on agriculture originally designed to benefit the established church and the clergy. Unlike other forms of taxation tithes were a burden born solely by those whose income arose from agriculture and the land, either directly, or indirectly. Before being commuted to a monetary equivalent by the Commutation Act of 1836, tithes were often paid in kind. They were based on ‘one tenth’ of the natural gain of a crop, herd or flock. They were, however, imposed on the gross product, with no allowance taken or made for seed sown, fertiliser or land improvement.
By 1836, the method of collecting tithes in kind had become outdated and was no longer fit for purpose. The decision was made to abolish the ‘in kind’ system and replace it with equivalent monetary payments or ‘rentcharge’. (In Scotland, where Tithes were known as Tiends, a form of commutation had been introduced in 1663. Therefore, they were not included in the surveys or maps produced as a result of English reforms of 1836.)
In truth, however, like anything that has been around for almost a thousand years, the ‘story’ of tithes before they were commuted to monetary payments in 1836, is rather more complex than it first appears As so often seems to be the case, those at the ‘top’ stood to gain far more from tithes than those at the ‘bottom’!
But what exactly was subject to tithe payments and just who was entitled to what?
Tithes could be subject to some degree of manipulation and regional variation according to land use, and, like some manorial customs, what was liable to be ‘tithed’ varied from parish to parish. Nonetheless tithes fell into three classifications; predial, mixed and personal.
Classifications of Tithes
Predial Tithes
These related to the ‘fruits of the earth’, so anything that grew in it, or from it, such as corn, hay and other crops. It also often included wood. These were the most valuable class of tithes.
These related to the ‘fruits of the earth’, so anything that grew in it, or from it, such as corn, hay and other crops. It also often included wood. These were the most valuable class of tithes.
Mixed Tithes
Mixed Tithes related largely to animals such as lambs, calves, colts, or to animal products such as wool, milk, eggs etc.
Mixed Tithes related largely to animals such as lambs, calves, colts, or to animal products such as wool, milk, eggs etc.
Personal Tithes
These tithes were payable on the gains of labour in related agricultural industries such as corn milling or fishing.
These tithes were payable on the gains of labour in related agricultural industries such as corn milling or fishing.
Tithes were grouped further into Great Tithes and Small or Lesser Tithes:
Great Tithes were paid to the Rector (administrative leader) of a parish, who may be a resident incumbent i.e. bishop, prior, prioress or an establishment such as a monastery, nunnery, college etc. These comprised the most valuable Predial Tithes or Corn Tithes.
Lesser or Small Tithes were paid to the Vicar appointed to a parish and performing a parochial service. These tithes were drawn from the Mixed Tithes, so lamb, wool, eggs etc.
Tithe Collection & Satire
Before the ‘Commutation Act of 1836’ when payments in kind were replaced by a monetary equivalent or rent charge, it was the means in which Tithes were collected and paid that many found so repugnant. Great tithes or corn tithes were often left in the field from where ‘tithe collectors’ appointed by the owner would arrange collection and/or sale. The recipient of the Lesser Tithes was also perfectly entitled and within their rights to enter a farm or property at any time to collect their dues. This custom naturally lent itself to satire, with the local ‘incumbent’ often the butt of the joke.
 Satirical Depiction of 'The Tythe Pig' Wiki Commons | The Tythe Pig In Country Village Lives a Vicar, Fond – as all are – of Tythes and Liquor, To mirth his ears are seldom Shut, He’ll Crack a Joke, and laugh at Smut; But when his Tythes he gathers in, True Parson then – no coin! No grin On Fish, On Flesh, On Bird, On Beast, Alike lays hold the Churlish Priest Hob’s Wife and Sow – as Gossips tell Both at a time in Pieces fell; The Parson comes, the Pig he claims And the good Wife with Taunts inflames; Bust she quite arch bow’d low and Smil’d Kept back the Pig and held the Child; The Priest look’d warm, the Wife look’d big, Z…ds, Sir! quoth she, no Child, no Pig Boitard & Müller, The Tythe Pig, 1751 |
As a clergyman’s daughter, author Jane Austen was extremely familiar with the English tithe system and the topic of a clergyman’s ‘living’ often appears in her novels. Her obsequious character ‘Mr Collins’ in Pride and Prejudice ranked "making such an agreement for tythes as may be beneficial to himself and not offensive to his patron" his first and foremost duty as a clergyman. As a rector, like Jane’s father, her character was entitled to both the Great and Lesser Tithes of the parish, and to their collection.
1784 'Payment in Kind or The Sow's Revenge'
Humour aside, the payment and collection of tithes, particularly those made in kind has been described as a ‘vexatious impost’ and formed the root cause of many a dispute. However, tithes were not designed to be contentious, but more as a means of bringing communities together. In writing about the significance of Tithes during the eighteenth century, Daniel Cummins argues
Although tithes could cause contention and friction, their real significance lies in the numerous relationships they created within eighteenth-century English society. These relationships constituted some of the most important everyday economic, contractual and social connections between individuals and were a central feature of parochial life during this period.[1]
Impropriation & Impropriators
In reality, however, the reformation and dissolution of the monasteries saw much Tithe entitlement pass from the church, to the Crown and from there into the hands of laymen (impropriators), in a process known as impropriation.[2] It has been estimated that in the period post-1530 up to one third of all great tithes were in the ownership of laymen. Furthermore, great tithes could be traded, i.e. bought, sold or leased by both the church and layman owners.
… tithe purchase involved an agreement made before harvest. The tithe purchaser entered into a contract with the tithe owner by which he or she agreed to pay a certain sum for the bought tithes on appointed days. Tithes sold in this way made up a significant portion of all the grain which reached the market.[3]
It is thought that by the time the Commutation Act was passed in 1836, 25% of the value of all tithes was in ownership outside the church.
Tithe Records for Historical Study
Tithes records are essential for the comparative study of acreages farmed, land use, cropping patterns, yields and crop values throughout history which is also helped by the uniformity of the ways in which the data was collected and compiled. I myself drew on the analysis of tithe data from Durham Cathedral Priory Muniments for evidence relating to corn production in the North East at the time of the Battle of Flodden in 1513.[4] For the Family Historian, however, the records and maps generated as a direct result of the 1836 reforms are of particular interest.
Composition and Modus
Payments in kind had been abolished in many areas before the reforms of 1836. Those made in monetary equivalents before 1836 came in two forms; a ‘composition’ which was subject to periodic revision, or termination by either party or a ‘modus’ which was a permanent charge attached to a particular product or piece of land. Where payments in kind persisted at apportionment, or had already been commuted to compositions or other monetary equivalents, specific details can often be found in the accompanying Articles of Agreement to the 1836 revisions.
Advertisement taken from the Newcastle Courant 31 March 1781. Note the 'Modus' paid in lieu of Corn and Hay tithes.
The records generated by the reforms produced, a map, an apportionment schedule and a file between the years 1841 and 1860. These records were also produced in triplicate:
an original and two copies of every confirmed instrument of apportionment. The originals are now in The National Archives. The two copies were deposited with the registrar of the diocese and with the incumbents of and churchwardens of the parish. In many cases the copies and subsequent altered apportionments are now deposited in the relevant local record office.[5]
The Genealogist & Tithe Records Online
The good news is that for those with access to the internet the records are also available online (along with other record sources unique to the site) with a diamond subscription to ‘The Genealogist’. Furthermore, the records can be searched by place, not just by person, so if your interest happens to be in a particular farm, village or town the tithe data provides a fascinating snapshot in time.
Examples and snippets relating to Horncliffe & Norham Mains.
Extract of the Tithe Schedule of 1844 for Horncliffe Loanend. Reproduced courtesy of The Genealogist and The National Archives
As examples of the type of information that can be sourced from tithe records, here are a few snippets that I found useful in the course of research into my own family. It was already known from the records that over the years the Smith family had interests, both owned and tenanted in several farms around Horncliffe and Norham, most notably Loanend, however the information lacked specifics. The tithe schedule dated 1844 for Horncliffe provided the following information:
- George Smith owned and occupied 194 acres and 32 perches at East Loanend himself.
- He also occupied a further 150 acres, 1 rood and 6 perches at West Loanend, owned by Mary White and Jane Simpson.
- The maiden names of these two women was Nicholson. Mary White was George’s mother-in- law, and Jane Simpson, her sister and George’s wife Grace Ann’s aunt.
- Alexander Smith, the owner and occupier of 55 acres 35 perches of land at Loaned at 7 above was Alexander Smith of Gallagate Farm, Norham, husband of George’s cousin Agnes Young. Agnes Young’s father was Aaron Young who drowned in River Whiteadder on New Year’s Day 1822.
- Also listed is William Mather at 5, owner of 10 acres 1 rood 18 perches occupied by Richard Brown. What is most interesting here is that he did so as executor of the Will of Thomas Naters. Thomas Naters was a reclusive millionaire who died at his Schloss in Switzerland in 1836. The tithe records would suggest that he held an interest in property at both Longridge and Horncliffe at the time of his death.
Accompanying Tithe Map from the 1844 Survey of Horncliffe Loanend. Reproduced courtesy of The Genealogist and The National Archives, Kew. Tithe Maps such as these are accessible online, along with many other unique record sources with a subscription to 'The Genealogist' https://www.thegenealogist.co.uk/
The land ‘owned’ and occupied by George Smith jnr at Horncliffe is represented on the accompanying map by the number ‘9’, and the land he occupied which was rented from his wife’s relatives by the number 6. (NB. It is more usual to see land owned and occupied represented by a series of numbers, not just one, with the land use of each parcel also given.)
The Articles of Agreement relating to the apportion of tithes make fascinating reading too and are packed with additional information and local idiosyncrasies. Those arising from a meeting which took place on the 17th August 1839, relating to Horncliffe confirm that prior to the 1836 reform, Small Tithes with the exception of Lamb and Wool, which were leased from the Dean & Chapter of Durham by the Executors of James Bell of Berwick upon Tweed decd, had still been payable in kind. A modus of ‘one shilling’ had been in place as payable in lieu of hay tithes.
Reference to the Tithes for Lamb and Wool in the Articles of Agreement for Norham Mains attached to the Tithe Survey of 1844. Reproduced by kind permission of 'The Genealogist and The National Archives, Kew.
Similarly, the ‘Articles of Agreement’ relating to the Tithes in the Township of Norham Mains confirm that payments had still be made in kind there too – both Great and Small, except the following for which ‘customary’ payments had been made as follows:
- For every Cow and Calf 2d
- For every Cow not in Calf 1d halfpenny
- For every score of Ewes milked 4d
- For every Mare in Foal 4d
- For every Hive of Bees 8d
There is even more historical information which can be extracted from the records relating to the commutation of Tithes, not least the values attributed to corn, given in bushels.[6]
Extracted from the Articles of Agreement attached to the Tithe Survey of 1844 for the Township of Norham Mains. Reprooduced by kind permission of The Genealogist and The National Archives, Kew.
There are many taxes from which historical information can be gleaned, but none have the longevity or depth of information as Tithes. The above is a just a brief overview designed to provide background, context and an explanation of a few of the terms that are likely to be encountered during your own foray into the world of Tithes and associated information. There are many excellent books and essays on the subject of the Tithe system, a few of which are listed below. In addition 'Tithe Surveys for Historians' by Roger J.P. Kain & Hugh C. Prince, Philimore, 2000 provides an in-depth explanation and background to the information the surveys will provide. Another very helpful overview is available from Family Search at
https://www.familysearch.org/wiki/en/England_Tithe_Records_(National_Institute)
https://www.familysearch.org/wiki/en/England_Tithe_Records_(National_Institute)
[1] Daniel Cummins, ‘The Social Significance of Tithes in Eighteenth Century England’ The English Historical Review, Vol. CXXVIII No. 534, Oxford, 2013 pp
[2] When entitlement passed to the church or religious houses it was ‘appropriated’.
[3] B Ben Dodds, ‘Peasants and Production in the Medieval North-East’, Regions and Regionalism in History, Woodbridge, 2007, p.162.
[4] Ben Dodds, ‘Peasants and Production in the Medieval North-East’, Regions and Regionalism in History, Woodbridge, 2007; Ben Dodds, ‘Peasants, Landlords and Production between the Tyne and the Tees, 1349-1450’, Regions and Regionalisms in History, Woodbridge, 2005.
[5] The National Archives
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/information-management/legislation/other-archival-legislation/tithe-records/
[6] There were approximately 8 bushels to the quarter and 4 quarters to the avoirdupois ton which equated to 20 cwt, or 2,000lbs, = 62.5lbs per bushel.
[2] When entitlement passed to the church or religious houses it was ‘appropriated’.
[3] B Ben Dodds, ‘Peasants and Production in the Medieval North-East’, Regions and Regionalism in History, Woodbridge, 2007, p.162.
[4] Ben Dodds, ‘Peasants and Production in the Medieval North-East’, Regions and Regionalism in History, Woodbridge, 2007; Ben Dodds, ‘Peasants, Landlords and Production between the Tyne and the Tees, 1349-1450’, Regions and Regionalisms in History, Woodbridge, 2005.
[5] The National Archives
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/information-management/legislation/other-archival-legislation/tithe-records/
[6] There were approximately 8 bushels to the quarter and 4 quarters to the avoirdupois ton which equated to 20 cwt, or 2,000lbs, = 62.5lbs per bushel.
October’s blog is inspired by both ‘Black History Month’ and references I encountered earlier this year whilst looking for some inspiration for a piece of fiction. I had been digging about in Historic Environment Scotland’s, medieval document research for Edinburgh Castle when entries relating to two ‘Moorish Lassies’, and the ‘Black Lady Tournaments’ of 1507 and 1508 had rather piqued my interest. The ‘Lassies’ are believed to have arrived by ship into Edinburgh, rather disturbingly, with a load of exotic animals, an African Drummer and other black individuals in 1504.
Whilst Columbus had discovered the ‘Americas;’ in 1492 and the Portuguese were engaged in the slave trade by this time, neither England nor Scotland were actively involved in the trafficking of human cargo at this early date. As Church registers were yet to be introduced (1538 in England, 1553 in Scotland) these documents afford a rare glimpse into the lives of black people in Britain during the early sixteenth century.
It is thought the ‘Lassies’ and other individuals may have been aboard a Portuguese Ship, captured by the Scottish High Admiral and Privateer, Andrew Barton, revenge for whose death at the hand of the Howards in 1511, is often recounted amongst the reasons for the Battle of Flodden in 1513.
War by sea between England and Scotland was soon followed by war by land, and in the letter of remonstrance and defiance to Henry VIII., with which James preceded the invasion of England, the unjust slaughter of Andrew Barton, and the capture of his ships, were stated among the principal grievances for which redress was thus sought. Even when battle was at hand, also, Lord Thomas Howard sent a message to the Scottish king, boasting of his share in the death of Barton, whom he persisted in calling a pirate, and adding that he was ready to justify the deed in the vanguard, where his command lay, and where he meant to show as little mercy as he expected to receive. And then succeeded the battle of Flodden, in which James and the best of the Scottish nobility fell; and after Flodden, a loss occurred which Barton would rather have died than witnessed.[1]
The Moorish Lassies and the Black Lady Tournaments
The ‘Moorish Lassies’, and their fellow African passengers far from being slaves, were readily accepted into the Court of James IV and thereafter formed part of the Royal entourage. The ‘lassies’ who were called Margaret and Ellen were appointed as Ladies in Waiting to Margaret Stewart, the illegitimate daughter of James IV and Margaret Drummond, thought to have been born circa 1495. These were undoubtedly privileged positions within the young Margaret’s ‘royal’ household. She and her African ladies made a tour of the Borders on horseback in the autumn of 1504, where one of them is rumoured to have been baptised.
A Middle-Ages rendering of The Queen of Sheba from the manuscript Bellifortis. Wiki Commons
As to the Black Lady Tournaments, there has been much speculation as to the role played by the two African girls, with some sources maintaining Ellen played the lead as the ‘Black Lady’, to James IV’s ‘Black Knight’. Others consider the girls acted in supporting roles as hand maidens to James’ daughter Margaret who herself played the female lead. There is also speculations that role was played by a gypsy woman ‘whose portrait survives among the collection derived from Piers the Painter (Andrea Thomas, Princelie Majestie: The Court of James V of Scotland (Edinburgh, 2005), p 83).’
A doubt about the genuiness of the Black Lady’s ‘African’ identity is raised by the black chamois sleeves which she wore as part of her costume. These were conventionally used as part of the Renaissance ‘blackface’ disguise in court masques. It is credible that they could also be worn for the purpose of modesty and warmth by a genuine African in the Scottish weather… The role might have been played by two separate people in the two different years and could even have been played by a man. Nor do the record of the tournament expenses give up the secrets – the documents maintain the illusion, recording the outlay on the clothes of the Black Lady, just as they do when recording payments for the unicorn pulling her chariot.[2]
On both occasions the description of the costume worn by the ‘Black Knight’ would appear to have been a far departure from the traditional plate tournament armour, prompting some to hypothesise it was the King dressed as an African warrior or Ottoman nobleman of whom he may have learned from the ‘Moors’ at his court. The colourful pageantry of the tournament also included:
Dragons, a unicorn and other unlikely animals … They may also have included animals from the Royal Menagerie which at this time included a lion and a wolf. [3]
Icy après s'ensuit comant les deux ductz de Bretaigne et de Bourbon sont à cheval armoyez et timbrez ainsi qui seront au Tournoy. "Hereafter follows the two Dukes of Brittany and Bourbon on horseback armed and with crests as if they were at the tourney." Date circa 1460. Wiki Commons
(The report and research undertaken by Historic Environment Scotland is available online as a pdf document and can be downloaded here)
In terms of establishing the presence and roles of black individuals in Britain in the period before slavery, in my opinion there are two books that provide some very enlightening evidence. The first is Peter Fryer’s ‘Staying Power’ whose dramatic opening statement to Chapter 1 ‘There were Africans in Britain before the English came here’ cannot fail to garner curiosity, and the second is Dr Miranda Kaufmann’s ‘Black Tudors’, which given my own geekish fascination in the Borderlands in the early sixteenth century, reintroduced me to a certain John Blanke, a chap I had met before but through a palaeography exercise rather than the fact of him having been black!
African Soldiers at Hadrian’s Wall
Peter Fryer brilliantly positions himself to tell the story of ‘Blacks in Britain’ by beginning with evidence of African soldiers that served with the Roman Army and a division of Moors stationed at Hadrian’s Wall in the 3rd century AD. He further recounts the evidence of a certain ‘Ethiopian’ who dared mock the Libya born Emperor Septimus Severus in 210 AD near Carlisle. Having returned from a successful foray against the inhabitants north of the wall, Fryer tells us the emperor was less than impressed to ‘encounter a black soldier flourishing a garland of cypress boughs.’ To a Roman, the Cypress was an omen of death …, but I shan’t spoil the outcome of that particular tale and shall leave it to be read alongside the rest of Fryer’s fascinating book.
(Cropped) The national archives describe this thus: "an extract from the 60ft-long Westminster Tournament Roll, shows six trumpeters, one of whom is Black and is almost certainly John Blanke. All the trumpeters are wearing yellow and grey, with blue purses at their waists. John Blanke is the only one wearing a brown turban latticed with yellow. He is mounted on a grey horse with a black harness." Date 1511. Wiki Commons
John White the Black Tudor Trumpeter
Dr Kaufmann’s publication is another gem, presenting as it does the story of 10 separate individuals the lives of whom, colour aside, would normally be passed over. As such it covers aspects of Tudor history that are a far departure from other offerings covering a similar period. Her opening chapter focuses on John Blanke (John White) a black trumpeter who first appears in 1507 being paid his wages of eight old pence (8d) per day by Henry VII. Kaufmann has done her research, digging in other records to find comparative rates for other court ‘tumpeters’, presumably to establish whether his rate was in anyway compromised on account of his colour. Crucially, she finds not.
From my diggings into accounts surrounding the Battle of Flodden in 1513, it is interesting to note that John is paid at the rate of a mounted soldier, 2d more than soldier on foot, and the soldiers, mariners and gunners that arrived at Newcastle by ship with the Lord High Admiral. It is also interesting to note that at 8d, his rate is half that of the vj Tromppett[es] ych of them at xvj d by the day [6 Trumpeters each of them at 16d by the day] detailed in E 101/56/27, the Accounts of Sir Philip Tylney in 1513, and It[e]m for the wag[es] of oon Trumpett at xvj d the day [Item for the wages of one Trumpeter at 16d the day] detailed in the ‘E36/1 The Accounts of Edward Benstead’, a year earlier in 1512.
Extract from E 101/56/27, the Accounts of Sir Philip Tylney in 1513 re payment of 6 Trumpeters at 16d per day.
At the death of Henry VII and accession of Henry VIII in 1509, John Blanke successfully petitioned the new King for a pay rise, where his wages were brought in line with those known to have accompanied the troops northwards. He married in January 1512, although to whom is not known, and the record of the gift made by the King at his wedding is the last record Kauffman has found of Blanke in the royal records in the records. He does not appear amongst the next list of named trumpeters recorded January 1514 … could it possibly be? In all probability if Blanke had indeed accompanied the army anywhere it would have been with the King to France, rather than with the Earl of Surrey to a soggy field in Northumberland!
Extract from ‘E36/1 The Accounts of Edward Benstead’, for the payment of one trumpeter in 1512.
Sir Pedro Negro and Lady Marion Hume in 1548/9
Indulging in some highly scientific research of my own within the State Papers Online i.e. entering the search term ‘negro’, returned a further interesting reference to an individual with connections to the Border region. This time it refers to a Spanish mercenary in the employ of Henry VIII during cross border hostilities known as the Rough Wooing (1543 – 1551) by the name of Sir Pedro/Petro Negro. Dr Kauffman again picks up the trail and eloquently debates the question of the colour of his skin in an online article on her website. The evidence she finds in favour of his having been black is contained in ‘a letter written in 1549 by Marion, Lady Home’ widow of George, 4th Lord Home of Hume Castle.
… she is complaining about the villainy of the English who ‘dystrow all this cuntre’. Strangely it seems the Spaniards, and ‘the Mour’ behave better, ‘lyk noble men’. They owe money to the ‘pur wyfis in this toun for ther expenssis’. It seems then, that the English and Spanish, who had been at Haddington, passed through Hume on 19 March, and were billeted there, leaving debts. Yet, Lady Hume seems to show special favour to the Spaniards, and especially the Moor, urging Guise to be ‘gud prenssis’ to them. Perhaps her favour was won the year before, when the Spaniards were involved in a failed attempt to take Hume castle from the English.
…Whether this Moor was Pedro Negro is not certain. Sadly Lady Hume does not mention him by name. But the circumstantial evidence is striking. There was clearly at least one Moor in Berwickshire in 1549: if it was not Pedro Negro, then who was it? If not Pedro Negro, then perhaps Jacques Granado, another mercenary, knighted by Somerset a week after Negro on 1 October 1547, at Newcastle,41 whose name suggests he was from Grenada, and whose arms include ‘a Blackamoor’s head couped Sable, wreathed argent’[4]
'Egyptians' in Northumberland and the Scottish Borders
A German woodcut depicting 'Saracens' dating from circa 1462. By Erhard Reuwich - Unknown source, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=32390864
Whilst this does indeed makes fascinating reading, it is important not to lose sight of another group of people who became synonymous with Northumberland and the Scottish Borders – the ‘Eygptians’ more commonly known simply as ‘gypsies’ and often referred to locally as ‘muggers’ (potters, rather than pick-pockets!). Whilst they make only the briefest appearance here they too were known to have been in the area during the early 16th century.
The first undoubted record referring to Gypsies in Great Britain is :—' 1505, April 22. Item to the Egyptianis be the Kingis command, vij lib.' "[5]
This extract is a quote from the Account of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland during the reign of James IV.
By the mid-19th century there seems to have been some debate over their ethnic origins, colour of their skin and other and other traits.
By the mid-19th century there seems to have been some debate over their ethnic origins, colour of their skin and other and other traits.
The special opinion of him as an Egyptian, or one of a different breed from the other inhabitants of this and, must be established; and this proceeding on those noted and peculiar circumstances of manner and appearance by which, in all countries that they have visited, this loose and lazy race have so remarkably been distinguished. Among these are the black eye and swarthy complexion ; a peculiar language or gibberish, intelligible only to themselves …[6]
There are many other such descriptions intermingled with evidence in equal measure that some ‘gypsy’ families were both fair haired and fair skinned.
The Borders aside, records of gypsies in Scotland date back as far as 1462 with ‘Saracens’ noted in Galloway, with some sources attributing them as the origin of the traditional Morris or ‘Moorish’ Dancing. Although written over 100 years ago David MacRitchie’s book ‘Scottish Gypsies under the Stewarts’ makes interesting reading and provides an alternative account to those of the English Tudor Court.
Useful Links
[1] Significant Scots, Andrew Barton, Electric Scotland
https://electricscotland.com/history/other/barton_andrew.htm
[2] Historic Environment Scotland, Edinburgh Castle Research, The Medieval Documents, 2018
[3] Historic Environment Scotland, Edinburgh Castle Research, The Medieval Documents, 2018
[4] Miranda Kauffman
http://www.mirandakaufmann.com/pedro-negro.html
[5] David MacRitchie, Scottish Gypsies under the Stewarts, Edinburgh, 1894.
https://electricscotland.com/history/gipsies/scottishgypsies2.pdf
[6] Hume's Commentaries on the Law of Scotland, Edinburgh, 1844, vol. i. pp. 474, 475.
https://electricscotland.com/history/gipsies/scottishgypsies2.pdf page 2.
For those of you who like digging about in old manuscripts but can't access the State Papers Online, a fabulous website The Tudor Chamber Books of Henry VII and Henry VIII containing transcriptions of manuscripts dating from 1485 - 1521 is available online at:
www.tudorchamberbooks.org/
https://electricscotland.com/history/other/barton_andrew.htm
[2] Historic Environment Scotland, Edinburgh Castle Research, The Medieval Documents, 2018
[3] Historic Environment Scotland, Edinburgh Castle Research, The Medieval Documents, 2018
[4] Miranda Kauffman
http://www.mirandakaufmann.com/pedro-negro.html
[5] David MacRitchie, Scottish Gypsies under the Stewarts, Edinburgh, 1894.
https://electricscotland.com/history/gipsies/scottishgypsies2.pdf
[6] Hume's Commentaries on the Law of Scotland, Edinburgh, 1844, vol. i. pp. 474, 475.
https://electricscotland.com/history/gipsies/scottishgypsies2.pdf page 2.
For those of you who like digging about in old manuscripts but can't access the State Papers Online, a fabulous website The Tudor Chamber Books of Henry VII and Henry VIII containing transcriptions of manuscripts dating from 1485 - 1521 is available online at:
www.tudorchamberbooks.org/
Throughout history different tiers of administrative bodies have evolved into the present administrative system – right from our local parish councils to central government. As these systems evolved, the powers they held changed too, some were lost, some were gained, and many became merged with others. At various points through history these administrative systems even governed our ancestors’ ability and freedom to move from one place to another. Where they have survived, the records created surrounding the movement of ‘people’ not only tell a fascinating story but can help us track the physical journeys made by our own ancestors in order to live and work.
 Title Page to Reminiscences of Thomas Marshall of Berwick. Written by Himself. 1835 | It was a copy of a book, sent to me by my friend and colleague Kevin Graham from Berwick Record Office, that prompted the subject of this month’s blog. ‘Reminiscences of Thomas Marshall of Berwick’ is an autobiographical, often humorous account of the many sojourns that comprised the authors life. Born in 1782 at Horncliffe, a small village close to Norham to an ordinary family, Thomas’ life was anything but. Thomas suffered from an extremely bad case of eighteenth century ‘itchy feet’. His numerous occupations varying from Shop Boy, Gardener, Grocer, Travelling Salesman to Ships Surgeon, Doctor in Melrose and a stint in the Durham Militia took him around the globe from Barbados, Nova Scotia, New York, Madeira, Brazil to Cadiz defy his humble birth and in some ways flout the rules concerning movement imposed by the administrative systems of the day.[1] Most of our ancestors would neither have travelled so far as Thomas Marshall, nor, would they have had such a variety of occupations, but the one thing the book does do well is emphasise that move they certainly did! This is perhaps a consideration that is too easily lost in the course of family history research. |
How often do I hear the phrase ‘they came from’ only to find with a bit of digging ‘they come from’ somewhere else beforehand! In truth the phrase is most usually associated with the furthest point in history reached by a specific line in a family tree, but how accurate actually is it? As with so many other things in life, the ability to move ‘freely’ and at will was the reserve of the wealthier in society. It is the poorer sections of the populace, however, whose stories are often the most interesting and plentiful amongst the records found in public archives.
Movement as a Manorial Tenant - Serfdom
Medieval Reeve and Serfs cutting corn. Wiki Commons
One of the earliest administrative units for which written records survive was the Manor. Back in March I looked at Manorial Records, what they are, and how they can help with local and ancestral research. There was, however, another aspect to the structure and customs of the Medieval Manor that was not discussed and which affected the freedom of movement for some sections of Manorial society.
Within the Medieval Manorial system there existed a social hierarchy of Free and Unfree Tenants. In return for his protection, the Manor Lord would expect payment, either in cash or in kind in the form of service. For some Unfree tenants this service saw them tied to the land as Serfs.
Free tenants held their lands in exchange for a monetary payment with an obligation to attend the Manor Court. Other obligations were also sometimes attached, but these were dropped and phased out over time. Essentially, although their holdings were held in perpetuity, they enjoyed a large degree of independence and were free to sell and move elsewhere if they chose to do so.
Unfree tenants on the other hand, also known as villeins, bondsmen or by other local names, were subject to much more stringent conditions. They too paid a monetary rent, but in addition provided labour to cultivate the Lord’s own land known as the Demesne, carry out repairs, or perform other services necessary to the running of the Manor on which they lived. Crucially, in order to move or live away from the Manor, unfree tenants required their Manor Lord’s permission. Within this band of unfree tenants also existed the ‘Serf’ who enjoyed even less rights over their land, were essentially ‘owned’ by the Manor and were personally ‘unfree’.
Whilst this might sound like a form of slavery, serfs could not be bought and sold as chattels but rather were attached to the land and Manor on which they lived. If the land was sold the serfs remained in situ and appear to have been included in the sale.
Northumberland Archives features a fascinating article on its website relating to Serfdom based records relating to local Northumbrian Manors. The records contain evidence of individuals required to prove their status as ‘free men’, men earning their ‘freedom’ and of a serf’s possessions passing to the Lord of the Manor at their death.
Serfdom was not purely about the work that was done, and different levies and requirements the serfs paid can be found in different manors. In many cases the lord of the manor held the right to receive a serf’s possessions after their death. This could be waived in some cases, as Theobald allowed Adam Donnesheued’s widow and daughter to remove his goods and chattels out of the manor, to his loss of 68 shillings. Some serfs tried to escape. In 1445-6 The prior of Lindisfarne received the goods of Robert Atkynson of Fenham manor after his death, but their accounts also refer to expenses in arresting bringing back John Atkynson of Fenham, Robert’s son, a native ‘meditating flight’. He didn’t run away after this, as in 1453-4 John Atkynson of Fenham, a native of the prior of Lindisfarne paid five shillings in for the merchet of his daughter Mariot.[2]
As time passed Unfree tenants became known by the ‘Customary Tenants’ as lands were held according to the Customs of the Manor. The leases known as ‘Copyholds’ were more flexible in terms of conditions as to inheritance and did not attract the former levels of feudal servitude and terms of residency. (The Law of Property Act 1925, extinguished the last of the Manorial Copyhold tenancies which had not already been converted to Freeholds during the 19th century.)
Whilst many of us will find evidence of our ancestors within Manorial records, in reality, it is unlikely they will fall within a timeframe to include serfs and serfdom. Nonetheless, it is a fascinating glimpse at how basic rights to move from one place to another was determined and curtailed by a social hierarchy within an ancient administrative system.
Settlement & Removal
16th century woodcut showing a gentleman giving alms to a beggar. Wiki Commons
Another form of local governance, which oversaw the free movement of people was the ‘Poor Law’. During certain periods, movement to other areas was necessary for obtaining work etc. Acts of Parliament introduced legislation which defined an individual’s ‘place of settlement’ or where someone belonged and the ability to be ‘removed’ back there should unemployment or destitution strike. Although containing notable differences, the basic principles of ‘Settlement and Removal’ was similar in both England and Scotland. For the purposes of this blog, the legislation and policies referred to, have been drawn from the English system. The intention being to discuss the implications of movement restrictions and the records it generated rather than the finer points of the Poor Law in either Country.
Prior to the Reform Act of 1834 the administration of ‘Poor Relief’ was overseen by the Parish. (In Scotland, the Poor Law was reformed in 1845). In England, the first Act governing the relief of the poor was passed in 1552. In Scotland it was 1572 and entitled “For punishment of strang and idle beggars, and reliefe of the pure and impotent".
In England several amendments swiftly followed to include a classification of the different kinds of ‘poor’ (deserving and undeserving) (1563), compulsory collection of tax to pay for poor relief (1572) more powers to raise tax for poor relief and overseers appointed to collect it (1597) a national standard and compulsory poor rate set (1601) and finally in 1662 the first ‘Act of Settlement’ was introduced. The ‘Act of Settlement’ determined which parish would be liable to pay poor relief to an individual should they find themselves in need, based on a set of residency criteria.
The Place of Settlement, or where someone ‘belonged’ was determined as a place someone had been born or had worked for a certain period of time. Crucially, the Act allowed for the removal of people back to their place of settlement should they become unemployed, failed to find work within 40 days, or, were unable to pay a rent on a property worth £10 per annum.
A revised Act of Settlement passed in 1697 set out more precisely defined rules for settlement qualification:
- Birth – a legitimate child took its father’s parish of settlement, even if it was not where it was born.
- Apprenticeship – either arranged by the parish or privately by the family
- Service – providing someone was hired for a year (365 days) or more, they would gain settlement in that parish of work.
- Marriage or remarriage – the wife assumed the place of settlement of her husband.
- Renting property worth at least £10 per annum and paying parish rates
- Election to a parish office (e.g. Overseer of the Poor; Churchwarden) for a year
The new Act allowed strangers to settle in a parish, so long as they could support themselves and brought a certificate proving their place of original settlement with them. These ‘Settlement Certificates’ were extremely important documents as they proved entitlement to poor relief by guaranteeing folks could return to their parish of settlement should they become destitute.
Certificates were issued by a church official in the original Parish and were to be passed to the corresponding church official in the destination Parish. The officials being Church Wardens or Overseers of the Poor depending on the date of issue. Certificates that have survived, usually date from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and contain the following information:
Reproduced Courtesy of Berwick Record Office. An example of a 'place of settlement' examination for John Cranston in 1758. Heard in Berwick Quarter Session Court note his previous place of employment was Coldingham in Scotland.
- Individual’s name
- Parish of settlement
- Parish of destination
- Date the certificate was issued.
If no certificate existed and the individual became chargeable to the parish, they would be examined by the local Justice of the Peace. They would be questioned as to where they had been born, how long they had lived and worked in the parish, marital state, number of children etc.
Once the place of settlement had been established a ‘Removal Order’ to the chargeable parish could be issued, along with a bill for expenses incurred by the parish where the individual or family did not ‘belong’. Removal orders would include:
- Individual’s name and possibly names of children
- The parish from which they were being removed
- The parish deemed their place of settlement or where they were being sent
It was quite common for the original parish of settlement to exercise their right to dispute a removal order. When this happened the case would go to the Quarter Sessions Court. Where they have survived amongst the court records these early examinations and removal orders can be goldmines of information.
Reproduced courtesy of Berwick Record Office. An extract of an appeal for the 'Removal' of Grace McQueen in 1828
The above illustrates how the place someone belonged and their ability to move freely to live and work was historically defined by a tier of legislative administration designed to encompass the ‘care’ and governance of ‘the poor’. The freedom and ability to move was not a totally straightforward process, but did come with a theoretical safety net. Ironically it is those ancestors who required this intervention that have potentially left more evidence of their passage. The Poor Law is an extensive subject and decidedly more far reaching than the snippets concerning ‘Settlement & Removal’ briefly covered here. There are many other aspects to its administrative which can provide further rich pickings for both the family and local historian and are well worth exploring.
[1] ‘Reminiscences of Thomas Marshall of Berwick by Himself’ Berwick, 1835, is available through the National Library of Scotland
https://search.nls.uk/permalink/f/sbbkgr/44NLS_ALMA21536844970004341
[2] Northumberland Archives, ‘Tied to the land – serfs from manorial history’.
https://www.northumberlandarchives.com/2017/04/07/tied-to-the-land-serfs-from-manorial-history/#more-3402
https://search.nls.uk/permalink/f/sbbkgr/44NLS_ALMA21536844970004341
[2] Northumberland Archives, ‘Tied to the land – serfs from manorial history’.
https://www.northumberlandarchives.com/2017/04/07/tied-to-the-land-serfs-from-manorial-history/#more-3402
The Pearcy family of ‘Glendale’ Northumberland & the value of Probate Inventories to the Family Historian
This month I would like to introduce you to David Pearcy one of my highly valued, longstanding customers. Rather than jumping all in and selecting a one-off research and report commission, David has joined the increasing number of folks who elect to pay a manageable sum each month to uncover a new aspect of their family history in bitesize chunks. Not only does this make researching his family history more affordable, it means it is a constantly evolving story. As we all know family history is NEVER done and during this extraordinary period of restricted movement it means, in some small way, David has had a new discovery or snippet of information to look forward to each month.
Rather than focusing on one particular line or individual, David is all encompassing in his approach to family history and whilst like most of us he has more questions concerning a specific individual or branch, he is looking for the whole story. Whilst always having had an active interest in his family’s history, it began in earnest following the passing of his mother and the re-discovery of her own meticulous research that contained several ancestor mysteries.
 Andrew Pearcy born 1848 at the Angel Inn, Wooler. | As part of his journey of discovery, David’s budget this month has taken advantage of a discounted Y-DNA test (available through Family Tree DNA until 31st August) to support (and hopefully enhance) his investigations into his patrilineal ‘Pearcy’ line. As readers of my blogs will know, the Y chromosome is carried, passed on and inherited exclusively by men, meaning they are the only ones who can take a Y-DNA test. (Ladies, do not despair, as due to the way Y-DNA recombines, testing a male cousin or uncle can be just as effective as testing a father or brother, just so long as they are from the same patrilineal (father) line.) David had already tested his autosomal DNA with Ancestry before he sought me out and through his matches had connected with a distant cousin compiling a family history about early members of the family. As is always the case, however, like the A1 which traverses Northumberland, there is one heck of a lot more to discover if the time is taken to leave the trunk road and explore! |
Legends abound concerning the origins of the Pearcy/Piercy family of Northumberland not to mention its wider potential connections! (A quick reminder here that the line of decent of the current incumbents of the title Duke of Northumberland although ancient has twice passed through the female line. If planning to use Y-DNA to explore links to these ‘Percys’ do please bear this in mind!) Refreshingly, David is not interested in investigating potential connections to illustrious personages but keen to delve deeper into his own historical origins – whatever they may be!
Confirmed Pearcy Ancestors
By the turn of the nineteenth century David’s Pearcy ancestors were firmly established in the ‘Glendale’ area of Northumberland, and indications are that they had been for some time previous. David’s 4th great grandfather was almost certainly a John Pearcy, in this instance spelled Piercy, who died at Nesbit Buildings aged 87 in 1829 and buried at Doddington on 1st September. In 1778 John Pearcy [Percy] had married a Mary Smith on 17th May at Doddington. In August the following year David’s 3rd great grandfather ‘Roger son to John Pearcy by his wife Mary, Doddington, was born 28 August 1779’ and baptised at Wooler West Street Presbyterian Chapel on 4th September.
Andrew Pearcy b. 1848, Wooler with his wife Margaret Turnbull and five of their children. David's grandfather 'Jack' Pearcy b.1885 is on the back row extreme right.
Mary ‘wife to John Percy [sic] died at Nesbit Buildings’ aged 69 in 1819 and was buried at Doddington on 11th July. In addition to Roger, David’s 3rd great grandfather it appears the couple had a further six children, the youngest of which, ‘Gilbert son of John Pearcy and Mary his wife Doddington Greens, born 7th September’ was baptised at West Chapel, Presbyterian Chapel Wooler on 9th September 1792. This name of this youngest son may prove to be a significant key in unravelling earlier generations of the family.
Extract from the Bible belonging to the Pearcy Family of the Angel Inn Wooler.
David’s 2nd great grandfather Stephen Pearcy who was born at Fenwick in August in 1815 became the Landlord at the Angel Inn on Wooler High Street, where he died in May 1855. After Stephen’s death his widow Mary Cock, whose family also had longstanding connections with Doddington and the ‘Cock Inn’, returned to the village and lived as housekeeper to her brother until her death at the Mill House in 1884. David has a fascinating collection of photographs and pub memorabilia dating from his family’s time at the Angel.
Subsequent generations of the Pearcy family followed the path taken by so many living in the rural communities of North Northumberland who headed south to the towns where the advent of the railway and the County’s deep mines afforded employment for skilled joiners and other craft trades. His grandfather ‘Jack’ Pearcy was the last of the line to have been born at Doddington on 7th May 1885.
Earlier Pearcy Family Groups
The earlier generations of the Pearcy family are more challenging to unravel, not least as there are a few of them, but also by a lack of evidence to ‘glue’ them together. By the late eighteenth century, distinct family groups are evident in the areas around Norham (Horncliffe), and Ford as well as Doddington, Wooler and Kirknewton. Do these groups all descend from a common Pearcy ancestor? Naming patterns and geographic locality would suggest a degree of familial connection exists but at what genetic distance? This is just one of the questions being posed and to which David’s Y-DNA may just hold some answers.
 Margaret Cock, wife of Stephen Pearcy of the Angel Inn Wooler. Following her husband's death she returned to Doddington where she lived as housekeeper to her brother at Doddington Mill House, and where she died in 1884. | The earliest vital event noted in north Northumberland parish registers is the marriage of Robert Pearsey [sic] to Francis Salmond at Berwick in Dec 1584. Outside of Berwick, the earliest parish register entry found to date is for the burial of a Thomas Piercy of Catfordlaw [Hay Farm] at Ford in January 1692/3. Relatively close on its heels is the baptism of a Gilbert Persey [sic] at Carham in June 1704. A badly worn memorial headstone at Kirknewton dating from circa 1759 provides early evidence of Pearcy links and the Christian name Gilbert with Doddington [Dorinton]. From his age of 87 recorded at burial in 1829, a year of birth for David’s 4th great grandfather, John Pearcy, can be estimated as 1742. A possibility for David’s 5th or even 6th great grandfather is a Roger Pearcy of Ewart, an historic township of Doddington, who married a Margaret Scot at Doddington in June 1713, but to date there is insufficient evidence to prove any relationship beyond doubt. There is also a possible burial record for Roger in 1724 which would rule him out. |
There are other potential candidates in a William Pearcy of Hazlerigg baptising children at Doddington in 1709, and a John Pearcy of Downam (Cornhill) the father of a Gilbert baptised at Carham in 1704, although from the dates these too may be from an earlier generation. Given the prevalence of the name Gilbert throughout, however, this particular family branch cannot be overlooked. It is thought highly likely that Roger, William and John were related, if not brothers, then perhaps cousins. A Gilbert Pearcy born circa 1727, calculated from the age recorded at his burial in Doddington in 1815, was likely to have been another close relative. Gilbert certainly had close ties to Doddington and appears to have been married at least twice if not three times.
Inventory of Gilbert Pearcie of Thom[p]sons Walls, 1687
The discovery of an administration bond and inventory for a Gilbert Pearcie of Thomsons Walls near Kirknewton dating from 1687 is therefore potentially relevant to the investigation. Where they have survived, Inventories are veritable gems of information and tell us so much about farm livestock levels and land use, in this case of an upland and semi-upland farm during the relevant period.[1] As some folks will know this is another interest of mine, especially its capabilities and limitations of feeding an army, as in 1513. This single page of text does not disappoint.
Probate Inventory for Gilbert Pearcy of Thompsons Walls, Kirknewton, Northumberland dated 1687
Sadly, the admin bond itself is unavailable online or to order which is unfortunate but as admin bonds are generally of limited genealogical value, not a disaster. Due to the nature of many of the pre 1695 Will Bonds it cannot be photocopied and is only available to view on site. However, as the inventory contains an amount owed for sheep, it would perhaps suggest that a relative, brother, cousin, son or nephew named Andrew Pearcy was also farming in the vicinity. Although not as distinctive a name as Gilbert, Andrew also features in David’s line of decent, indeed it was the Christian name of his Great Grandfather who was born at the Angel Inn at Wooler the 16th November 1848.
Inventory of Thomas Mewres of Thom[p]sons Walls, 1683
Interestingly, the 1683 Inventory of Thomas Mewres also of Thomsons Walls is also available online. It would appear he was possibly farming a larger area and carrying more stock. It also shows a figure for £50, an equivalent of £5722.49 as at 2017 was owing to the deceased although it does not state by whom. [2] Is it perhaps the opposite entry to the debt which appears, and was still owing by Gilbert Pearcy in 1687?
![Picture Probate Inventory for Thomas Mewres [sic] of Thompsons Walls, Kirknewton, Northumberland dated 1683](/uploads/1/7/2/3/17231010/thomas-mewres-inventory-1683_orig.jpg)
Probate Inventory for Thomas Mewres [sic] of Thompsons Walls, Kirknewton, Northumberland dated 1683
It is interesting to note that whilst the probate valuation undertaken in April 1687 for Gilbert Pearcy includes a figure for crops in the ground, the valuation of October 1683 does not. Does this suggest that if autumn sowing formed part of the arable rotation it was yet to take place? The autumn valuation for Thomas Mewres in 1683 with its larger quantities of Oats, Rye and Barley in store would suggest it was perhaps immediately post-harvest? There is a total absence of Wheat, which due to the nature of the land is to be expected.
It was also noted that this autumn valuation contained large quantities of cheese and butter. Before the seventeenth century, cheese was largely made from ewe’s milk but by the time the probate was drafted it is thought the cheese would have been made from the milk from the five cows with calves at foot. It is glimpses into the past like these that shed light on the staple foods that formed part of our ancestors’ diets.
Signature of George Smith of Horncliffe in 1788
Although not included here there are two further inventories and associated documents relating to the Mewres [Mures] family of Thom[p]sons Walls. A George Mures dating from 1694, a Robert Mures from 1710 which also includes a Will. He appears to have died unmarried and without issue as several nephews as nieces are named as beneficiaries. A jump to Lowick and a George Muross [sic] sees my own 4th great grandfather George Smith of Horncliffe standing as administration guarantor. If interested these can be found in the
North East Inheritance Database
North East Inheritance Database
Clearly it has only been possible to cover a small fraction of Pearcy research and associated evidence in just one blog. The little snippets included here are designed to ‘pique’ the interest, illustrate the longevity of the Glendale connection and provide some general historical interest for non-Pearcy readers.
Should your interest lie with the extended Pearcy pedigree, however, several lines of decent have to date been traced and followed to Howick, Alnwick and beyond. The more folks that come forward with their own personal snippets of family knowledge and the more Pearcy/Piercy men that test their DNA, the more evidence will become available and meaningful conclusions can be drawn over time. If this is you, or is of interest to you, then please do get in touch with us!
Notes to the Inventory transcriptions.
Whilst the spellings are typically erratic, most of the language in the Inventories will be familiar, however, definitions have been provided for the more obscure words below:
Bigg
OED online. A hardy variety of barley grown mainly in northern England and Scotland. Cf. bere n.1.
Now considered to be one of the cultivated varieties of Hordeum vulgare subsp. vulgare, this type of barley was previously known as H. tetrastichum because it appears to have four rows of grains in the ear.
barley-bigg, Scotch bigg: see the first elements.
Hoges/Hoggs
'Hoges' here have been taken to mean sheep in their 2nd year of life.
Weather
A Wether/Weather/Wedder is a castrated male sheep.
Boll
OED Online. A measure of capacity for grain, etc., used in Scotland and the north of England, containing in Scotland generally 6 imperial bushels, but in the north of England varying locally from the ‘old boll’ of 6 bushels to the ‘new boll’ of 2 bushels. Also a measure of weight, containing for flour 10 stone (= 140 pounds). (A very full table of its local values is given in Old Country & Farming Words (E.D.S. 1880) p. 168). (NB. At the time of Flodden in 1513 there were 8 bushels of corn to the Quarter and 4 Quarters to the ton.)
Bigg
OED online. A hardy variety of barley grown mainly in northern England and Scotland. Cf. bere n.1.
Now considered to be one of the cultivated varieties of Hordeum vulgare subsp. vulgare, this type of barley was previously known as H. tetrastichum because it appears to have four rows of grains in the ear.
barley-bigg, Scotch bigg: see the first elements.
Hoges/Hoggs
'Hoges' here have been taken to mean sheep in their 2nd year of life.
Weather
A Wether/Weather/Wedder is a castrated male sheep.
Boll
OED Online. A measure of capacity for grain, etc., used in Scotland and the north of England, containing in Scotland generally 6 imperial bushels, but in the north of England varying locally from the ‘old boll’ of 6 bushels to the ‘new boll’ of 2 bushels. Also a measure of weight, containing for flour 10 stone (= 140 pounds). (A very full table of its local values is given in Old Country & Farming Words (E.D.S. 1880) p. 168). (NB. At the time of Flodden in 1513 there were 8 bushels of corn to the Quarter and 4 Quarters to the ton.)
Useful Links
[1] The publications of the Surtees Society are always worth consulting when looking for collections of early Wills & Inventories. Some, such as, Wills and inventories illustrative of the history, manners, language, statistics, &c., of the northern counties of England, from the eleventh century downwards, are available online
http://www.surteessociety.org.uk/
[2] National Archives, Currency Convertor
https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/currency-converter
http://www.surteessociety.org.uk/
[2] National Archives, Currency Convertor
https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/currency-converter
