 Henry George Hine. 'Mr. Crindle's Rapid Career Upon Town' Cartoon created for 'Man in the Moon' courtesy of Lambiek Comiclopedia https://www.lambiek.net/artists/h/hine_henry_george.htm ‘Biography is one of the most popular and widely read of literary genres. It can also be controversial, scandalous, and hotly debated. And it is by no means a fixed or stable form of literature. Biography has gone through many centuries of change and exists in many different versions.’[1] Documenting ancestor’s lives and bringing together family history as a narrative creates a position of both power and responsibility. Not least, over what form the account will take, what to include and what to lose to the cutting room floor. It is the culmination of years of research come to fruition. The stories of the good, the bad, the bigamous, the unmarried, the criminal or the victim all waiting to spill out onto the page. But where to begin? And is it ‘right’ to include everything ‘warts and all’ because it has been unearthed? The October issue of Family Tree Magazine contains my article discussing this issue.[2] It also covers some other considerations faced when writing ancestors stories (moral and otherwise) based on the results of a questionnaire circulated in June. The same issue contains an exclusive feature on house history by David Olusoga, presenter of BBC2’s ‘A House in Time’. A great article that builds on last month’s blog looking at creating immersive historical settings. In preparation for the companion piece focusing on the ‘practicalities’ of writing ancestor biographies, this month I look at some stylistic ways it can be easily achieved. It can be a lot of fun! Plus, many methods outlined can also act as a research aide memoir by highlighting gaps in knowledge. ‘Cradle to Grave’ is the traditional style or method favoured by family historians. It is customary to begin with a birth and follow a chronological path through life and achievements to the point of departure. But there are many other ways to approach writing family history and ancestral stories and, they don’t all have to begin at the beginning or with a birth! Here are a few alternative tactics that work well in the context of family history:
There are at least two further approaches. One will be familiar to all family historians (the Obituary style) and another that took me a bit by surprise! During five days of intensive life writing workshops, author Richard Skinner set a task to research and gather as much information as possible about a favourite ‘artist’. The research time given was one afternoon! The information amassed was to form the basis of the next day’s writing challenge. But at the time of the research, that challenge was unknown. Portrait of a Painter - Henry George Hine 1811 - 1895 Figures Crossing a Back H.G Hine. A Street in London [Possibly Hampstead] Early Morning in Winter. (1887) My knowledge of the world of art is somewhat limited, but the well-known watercolourist Henry George Hine immediately came to mind. He was the husband of a third great aunt, Mary Ann Eliza Egerton, so I already knew something about him too. An interesting man who preferred a ‘simple kindly life’ and had great stories to tell. He was a prolific artist whose pictures are rich in historic detail. They reflect a bygone era and provide powerful vignettes of social history. Those of Brighton are useful records of the town’s history with its fish quay, promenade and bathing huts. Other paintings depicting scenes such as a cattle train on a viaduct, London washerwoman at work and a fire in Drury Lane are three others that offer rich glimpses into the past. Hine himself often reflected on the Brighton of his childhood recounting the tales to friends and family along with the legend of a highwayman ancestor hanged during the time of Cromwell. My January 2019 blog also mentions the family. In it, I aim to dispel a few myths concerning the Egerton family pedigree and speculate whether coaching connections may have brought the couple together. It is only speculation, as Mary Ann was to become an accomplished artist in her own right. She exhibited a figurative watercolour at the Dudley Gallery in 1873. The couple had a staggering fifteen children of whom only one did not make adulthood. I also mention two of his youngest daughters who were founding members of the ‘Peasant Arts Society’ in Haslemere Surrey. But so many aspects of this couple’s life have an interesting back story. The history and site of Saint Marks Church, Kennington, where the couple married in November 1840, is worthy of its own chapter. But I digress! Faber Workshops & Writing Challenges• The interview or question and answer method. When Richard outlined the writing challenge the following morning, my heart hit my boots. ‘Interview your chosen artist in five questions.’ How do you interview an ancestor who died in 1895, let alone know what questions to ask? Believing myself well prepared for the day’s exercises, my confidence flew out of the window and blind panic set in. On top of this horrendous challenge was a time limit of 45 minutes. I was having premonitions of a blank page at the end of the allotted time and sitting back to enjoy my writing partner’s piece of literary genius! Where to even start such an endeavour? I looked to Henry himself for guidance and started to write …  Henry George Hine V.P.R.I by Walker Hodgson Dec 1891. (Walker Hodgson, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons) I am looking at the 80-year-old man in an 1891 sketch by Walker Hodgson. His mass of white, leonine hair is set high and Einstein-Esque above an intelligent forehead. His kindly eyes gaze over his long nose, drooping moustache and feathery beard to a point in the distance somewhere beyond my left shoulder. I imagine ‘chewing the fat’ over a cup of hot chocolate with this portly fellow with the immaculate bow tie, waistcoat unbuttoned to accommodate his form and handkerchief, wilting in a top pocket. I want to ask him about his life and experiences that culminated in the vice presidency of the Royal Institute of Painters in Watercolours. A position he held from 1887 to his death in 1895. Although I didn’t finish the challenge in the allotted time, I was not left looking at a blank screen either. Yes, the first question was about where he was born, but it needn’t have been! In my haste to put words on the page, I framed the questions around answers I knew. But none of the details are fictitious and where possible, Henry’s ‘own voice’ has been used. As I began scribbling, I remembered the book ‘Round about a Brighton Coach Office’, a selection of his stories retold and published by his daughter Maude. Using extracts from the book and combining them with other known facts formed the basis of Henry’s answers. As coincidence would have it, the afternoon’s challenge was an Obituary, the style of which is popular and well-known amongst family historians.  Untitled (A courtyard of women washing Clothes) © Trustees of the British Museum | Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 • Obituary style or ‘Beginning at the End’ As well as containing details of funeral arrangements, an obituary of a well-known figure often comprises a brief biographical overview of their life. Adopting this approach essentially begins an individual’s story at the point where it ends. The main focus is almost always specific achievements. This time there was a limit of 500 words on top of the 45 minutes of writing time. What follows is my attempt, which, although roughly completed within the time, is not great but will hopefully inspire you to give it go! On the 16th March 1895, at his home in Gayton Crescent, Hampstead, in his 84th year, renowned watercolour artist Henry George Hine laid down his paintbrush for the last time. I confess to writing the beginning and the end first and then ‘putting the jam in the sandwich’. Cheating, but at least it provides some form of narrative arc to the 481 words used! But it is the sharp contrast in language and tone between the two exercises that is so dramatic. The Q&A is more personal and the subject feels close and alive, whereas the Obituary is altogether more formal and the subject quite distant. It is interesting to see how much the different approaches affect the result in such a radical way. An interview or Q&A with a deceased ancestor is not something I would ever have thought of trying before, but it is a method and style I will try again. I can also see its benefit as a focus and framework for questions to pose to the living too! The reason for sharing the exercises above is to inspire you to be bold and have a go yourselves! Choose a style, set a clock for half an hour or 45 minutes and just get scribbling. (Setting a short time limit can be an effective motivator.) Then, why not share your results with others. They may look differently on family history after reading your work!  Henry George Hine, 'In and Out'. (Henry George Hine, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons) [1] Hermione Lee. Biography A Very Short Introduction. Oxford 2009. [2] Family Tree Magazine, October Issue on sale from the 10th September either in print or online https://www.family-tree.co.uk/store/back-issues/family-tree-magazine Useful LinksSt Mark's Church Kennington,
https://stmarkskennington.org/about/history/ Explore a further selection of Henry's Paintings at Watercolour World www.watercolourworld.org/search?query=Henry+George+Hine&displayCount=24 A highly informative website about the peasant art movement and its people. Peasant Arts - Haslemere http://peasant-arts.blogspot.com/p/introduction.html A wonderfully illustrated copy of Henry's tales retold by his daughter Maude. Archive.org 'Round About a Brighton Coach Office' Maude Egerton King with illustrations by Lucy Kemp Welsh. https://archive.org/details/roundaboutbright00king/page/n9/mode/2up
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A great narrative does not have to be fiction and writing creatively does not make an account less factual! Creating a rich setting provides the theatre in which characters can be expressed and allowed to re-enact their stories.  For many family historians, the pleasure of research lies in sharing discoveries or entertaining others with ancestral tales. For some, it is the enjoyment of immersion in old documents and learning about times gone by. For others, it is the desire to create a legacy for generations to come. But for all, the question of how to record it all will doubtless arise at some point! There is the traditional method of recording information in a family tree accompanied by a report containing dates, facts and endless citations. But if looking to go beyond the time-honoured route, a written narrative account may be the answer. Nonetheless, the style and format of any account are dictated by the intended audience. Traditional family history reports are fine for other family historians. But they don’t and won’t cut the mustard with non-genealogy minded folk! To keep them reading beyond the first page requires a more sensory approach and language that captures the imagination. Writing a factual family history, a biographical account of a specific ancestor or about the place where ancestors lived needn’t be dull. Cast your mind back to books you have read. What is it about them you enjoyed? I have recently finished ‘Inge’s War' by Svenja O’Donnell.[1] Taking advantage of the hot weather I sat in the garden and read the account of her grandmother’s life in Germany during WW2 from cover to cover. It is an example of a family history narrative at its best. Meticulously researched, yet the language is highly accessible making it easy for the reader to engage with her story. It is sensitive and compelling but remains honest and factual. Creating Setting for Historical NarrativesLike any other account, the historical narrative needs to contain specific elements. Setting is one of the most important as it conveys a sense of place and time as well as providing the backdrop and mood for characters to play out the plot. I have been having some fun of late indulging in a bit of memoir combined with house history and a 1,000-word challenge. The house and farm where I spent much of my childhood and adolescence have a history that stretches back several centuries. The house’s listing with Historic England dates it from the late sixteenth - early seventeenth century. [2] But I am also lucky as many records have survived which show how they have changed and evolved over the years. I was the fifth generation in my direct paternal line to have lived there, thus I remember it well.
It doesn’t always need a photograph to generate a visual on which to base more sensory images. This extract from the rental agreement for our predecessors in 1853 paints a picture of a very different internal layout than the one I remember or exists today.  These differences account for the strange levels of old doorways and windows which can still be seen both inside out. Instead of producing a literal account, it is possible to create a more dramatic feel for the idiosyncrasies without compromising the truth.
In the 1000-word challenge, I went a step further, humanised the house and treated it as the central character. By creating analogies between the house as a mother caring for her children, and, as a collector of the souls of previous inhabitants, it suited the purpose of the story I was trying to tell. Below are some examples of sources that will provide valuable information to help create a setting rich in historical detail and context.
The garden of my early childhood in my grandparents' day has also radically changed. Granny Smith loved her flowers; a large bed in the centre of the top lawn provided what seemed to be an endless supply of Dahlias and Chrysanthemums. There was a dry fishpond, a concrete-lined crater surrounded by crazy paving and French Marigolds. But it is the rows of rose beds separated by parallel gravel pathways I particularly remember.  Courtesy of the British Newspaper Archive. The Berwickshire News, Tuesday February 13th 1934. (The Mr Logan referred to is, I believe a Mr George Logan of Ayton.) It was this interesting little snippet found in the newspapers that brought it to mind. Although the paper appeared in 1934, the article relates to recollections of a journey made 40 years earlier in 1895.
 A picture of my Pa (John Michael Aynsley Smith) and his parents (John Aynsley Smith and Alain nee Davison) in the garden at Longhoughton 1954/56. My recollections of the structure of the house continue:
The next step is to introduce atmosphere. Setting and sensory description is often lacking from traditional family histories and other historical accounts. Again, as well as engaging the reader it is important to remember the contract to provide a truthful account. In my 1000-word challenge, I drew heavily on personal memories of sounds, smells, taste and touch.
The smallest detail or object can add mood and ambience as well as focus and interest. Whilst helpful for setting, the sources listed above also contain information about the human aspect of a property or place. When combined with the records commonly used for researching family histories, such as Birth Marriage & Death and the Census, it is possible to draw together a chronological account of previous inhabitants.  A picture of Hannah Smith nee Aynsley (1837- 1922) widow of John Smith w.d. 5th Aug 1881. She is named as the tenant in the rental agreement dated 1882.
 Schedule to Tenancy Agreement for Longhoughton Hall Farm in the name of Mrs Hannah Smith, dated 15th November 1882. There is enough information about the place and its people to write several chapters of a book. This extract is a brief glimpse, but it needed to be. Context and relevance are key for both narrative and content. A tight word count focuses the mind and curtails an over-eager pen! Writing a family, house or any other history may seem a daunting prospect. Try starting small with a series of small challenges or vignettes written in 1,000 words or less. It’s amazing how much can be said in under 500 words. These exercises are great for building confidence and also for providing material for a much larger work. Remember, a great narrative does not have to be fiction and writing creatively does not make an account less factual! Creating a rich setting provides the theatre in which characters can be expressed and allowed re-enact their story. A two-part article on the topic of writing family history narrative will be published in Family Tree Magazine. Part I which considers the principles, (moral and otherwise) together with the potential pitfalls, will appear in the October issue on sale from the 10th September. It is based on the responses to a public questionnaire circulated in June. If you were one of the 75 individuals who took part and shared their views, very many thanks indeed. Your opinions matter and they were fascinating to read! Part II will focus on the practicalities of writing family history in its several forms. If you have written a family history or are writing your ancestors' stories as a narrative, tried to write but given up, or would like to give it a go but don't know where to begin, we would love to hear from you. The questionnaire is anonymous and contains only seven quick questions. It will be open throughout August. The results with a selection of your comments will appear in the December issue. As research can be a solitary pastime, so can writing. Getting together with others, in a small group, or even just one other individual can provide moral support as well as helpful feedback and suggestions. Content, Context and Construction are topics I intend to cover in workshops with small groups over the winter months. If you think these might be of interest, please contact me for further information. If you enjoyed this post why not subscribe to the Free monthly Blog and newsletter and never miss a thing!  Extract from Lordship plan of Longhoughton circa 1788 where the house can be clearly seen. Note the absence of the existing road to Boulmer. At that time (and until late nineteenth century the road to Boulmer lay further south on the Lesbury Rd and ran through The Letches Useful Links[1] Penguin Books, Svenja O'Donnell, 'Inges' War - A True Story of Family, Secrets and Survival under Hitler'
https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/111/1118767/inge-s-war/9781529105476.html [2] Historic England, Longhoughton Hall, https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1041774  Extract from the 'Execution of the notorious William Burke, the murderer who supplied Dr. Knox with subjects.' From a contemporary print. Wiki Commons At 9.00 am on Saturday 17th August 1816, John Greig, a Barber and Publican from Monkwearmouth Shore was hanged outside Durham Courthouse. He was the first person executed at Durham using the ‘new drop’ method, where the condemned entered the afterlife via a trapdoor. He had been found guilty of the ‘wilful murder of Elizabeth Stonehouse’ at the Summer Assizes. His hearing lasted just five hours. To modern standards, five hours seems a ridiculously short duration for a trail of such gravity, but to an early nineteenth-century audience, a five-hour hearing was a long one. ‘The actual trials were often very quick; in 1833, at the Old Bailey (an Assizes court), it was estimated they averaged 8-9 minutes.’[1] Indeed, the press bemoaned the length of John’s trial as there was insufficient time to print details in the following day’s newspaper. Hence, details of the court proceedings do not appear until the following Saturday, 24th August, together with the details of his execution.
The doctor attended her at the home of Matthew Briggs shortly after the incident. As well as treating her wound, he observed a ‘large mass of disease’. Bet died on the 22nd of April 1816, some 18 days after the shooting occurred. Nevertheless, the cause of death recorded is as a result of the gunshot. This accounts for the two separate charges recorded against John in the Calendar of Prisoners for August 1816. The first for shooting and maiming, the second for her murder.  Extract from the Kalendar of Prisoners whose cases were to be heard at the Durham Assizes in the Summer of 1816 A copy of the Calendar in full can be viewed online at Harvard Library Curiosity Collection It is not clear whether there was any truth in Bet’s accusations, but to date, I have found no evidence to substantiate her claims. Bet, who was born Elizabeth Parkin in 1768 does not appear to have had an easy life. Records suggest that her father Charles Parkin may have died when she was young. Aged 21, she married Samuel Stonehouse at Bishopwearmouth in January 1789. Samuel was a mariner who would spend much time at sea - he was reported to have been at sea at the time of the shooting. The couple had eight children born between the years 1789 – 1805, but only 4 survived beyond childhood. Suffering this type of loss, at times without the support of her husband must have been difficult for her. Even so, it still does not explain her accusations and why she appears to have targeted John Greig. As for John, he appears to have remained unrepentant of his actions but accepted the justice of his punishment. I suspect there is still more to this case than meets the eye. Where to start looking for records of criminal ancestors depends on the period and gravity of the crime they committed. The more serious the crime the ‘higher’ the court. Hierarchy of The Historic English CourtsThere was a hierarchy of courts dealing with crime and criminals outside of London at county, regional and national level. The judicial system and type of cases they each heard has evolved through the centuries. Until circa 1500, an annually elected Sheriff was responsible for dealing with crime and criminals at county level. Coroners who investigated sudden and violent deaths assisted him. They reported suspected murders to the Sheriff, who dealt with them through his Court. After this period the Sheriff's court dealt with civil cases only. Even so, the Sheriffs and Coroners could still ‘outlaw’ accused individuals who failed to appear at trial in a higher court. In the early modern period, Church Courts and Manor Courts also played a leading role in the trials of petty misdemeanours. These courts heard the majority of petty cases until the Restoration. The most important officers of the County judicial system were the Justices of the Peace. Drawn from the County’s landed gentry there would be several in office at any one time. Acting on their own or in pairs their ‘powers’ were far-reaching. Nowhere more so than acting as ‘judges’ over the Quarter Session Courts. Assisted by grand and petty juries, they could try more serious criminal cases. They could also determine the punishments for those convicted. Above the Quarter Session Courts were the regional Assize Courts who were answerable to the Privy Council. Local criminal cases could also be transferred to the Court of the King's Bench in London if required. The various regional courts outline above heard civil as criminal cases. They also dealt with many aspects of local administration. Below is a brief description of the courts in operation in the early nineteenth century and the types of criminal cases they heard. Petty Sessions Court  Bow Street Magistrates' Court in London: This engraving was published as Plate 11 of Microcosm of London (1808) Wiki Commons These are what we know today as the Magistrates Court. Formed in the 18th century from Quarter Sessions they heard more minor cases, such as poaching, drunkenness and vagrancy. It was a court of ‘summary jurisdiction’ whereby the Justices of the Peace could decide on a sentence without the intervention of a jury. Their records are usually held by the local Records Offices. (NB. From the 19th century onwards the Petty Sessions also heard cases of illegitimacy. These cases are sometimes recorded in separate ‘Bastardy Order Books’.) Quarter Sessions Court As the name suggests, the Quarter Session courts met four times a year, in January, April, July and October in Counties and Boroughs with the right to try criminal cases. They are normally associated with a county but some boroughs and cities could also hold their own courts by a grant of royal decree or charter. Presided over by the justices of the peace and two juries, they heard more serious criminal cases. The cases heard were not usually for capital offences, but there were exceptions. ‘Before 1842 the line between Assize and Quarter Sessions cases was rather blurred; an Act of that year consigned all capital offences (those that carried the death penalty) and also cases with sentences of life imprisonment, for the first offence, to the Assizes.’[2] Some boroughs such as Berwick upon Tweed could and did, try crimes attracting the death penalty as their records will testify. As with those of the Petty Sessions, the Quarter Session records are held in local archive offices. The Assize Court Before 1972, the Assize courts were the highest regional courts in England. Their origins date from the Medieval ‘Eyre’ courts where judges sent in the King’s name from Westminster administered justice in the counties. They were traditionally held twice a year; February/March in the Spring, and July/August in the summer and operated in six ‘circuits’ of contiguous. The exception was London, the permanent home to the Assize court known as the Old Bailey. The Assize Courts typically heard capital cases that carried the death penalty and other cases too serious for trial at the Quarter Sessions. In 1815 there were no less than 215 crimes which (in theory) could attract a penalty of death. Amongst them were:
This number, sparked by social, economic and political changes had risen sharply from 50 in 1688. It was the time of what became known as the ‘Bloody Code’. Stealing 5 shillings (about £30) or being out after dark with a blackened face could result in hanging.  The execution of the idle apprentice at Tyburn. Engraving by T. Cook, 1795, after W. Hogarth, 1747. Wiki Commons In 1816 the two assize judges, Sir George Wood, Sir John Bayley their clerks and their retinue arrived in Durham on Saturday 10th August. Sir George Wood presided over the cases ‘for the Crown’, (the criminal cases) and Sir John Bayley dealt with matters of the Civil Court (land disputes etc.). Court proceedings commenced on Monday morning following. As at the Quarter Sessions, the Grand Jury decided which cases to present for trial. They had the power to decide which cases to dismiss, either as there was insufficient evidence or no case to answer. The Grand Jury also heard witness statements and prepared the indictments for cases being be brought before the court. If a case was to be tried, then the Petty Jury or Trial Jury was sworn in to hear it. It was they who would decide the verdict. ‘Each trial started with the clerk reading the charge again, and then the prosecutor presented the case against the defendant, followed by the witnesses, who testified under oath. Witness testimony was the most common source of evidence and Judges frequently intervened to ask questions or comment. The defendant was then asked to state his or her case. They could call witnesses, if they had any, and use a defence lawyer.’[3] The newspapers record that John Greig made no case himself in his defence but ‘called several witnesses to speak to his character, all of whom spoke highly in his favour.’ That week there were five other individuals sentenced to death. Two for stealing horses, one for stealing 3 heifers, one for killing a sheep and stealing the carcass, and one for stealing £5 in silver coin. All bar John received reprieves, most likely having their sentences transmuted to transportation. (An interesting aside is that Anne Stonehouse also appeared on the Calendar of Prisoners for the same session. Charged with ‘concealing’ the birth of a child, the Grand Jury dismissed her case before it came to trial. Whilst it is not known if any connection existed between the two Stonehouse families, it is a rather ironic twist of fate.) The assizes often lasted a week to a fortnight depending on the number of cases to be heard. Like the Quarter Sessions, the Assizes involved a lot of people and were important economic occasions for the host town. Bringing in many people, much business and money they were social highlights of the year. This extract from the Durham Country Advertiser describes the arrival of the judges and their retinue in Newcastle the following week.  Extract from the Durham Advertiser 24 August 1816. Reproduced courtesy of the British Newspaper Archives John Greig’s execution would have marked the culmination of the summer Assizes and associated jollities. Thousands would have gathered in what is now Durham Crown Court Gardens to watch the public spectacle. Unlike Petty Session and Quarter Session records, the National Archives holds the Assize records. A table and key to those that have survived are listed here (It should be noted that whilst Chester, Durham and Lancaster had their own assize jurisdictions, their surviving records are also held at Kew.) Documents Associated with Courts and Criminal Trials The judicial system generated various types of records, the most common are briefly outlined below:
Newspapers or other publications are another great source of information relating to a trial. (They are sometimes the only source too). Newspapers often contain an account of the proceedings of the trials themselves. A prime example of publications at work are the 'Proceedings of the Old Bailey 1674 - 1913' which are freely available online. In the case of John Greig, later articles tell of his last night in prison and collections for his widow and family. These say far more than a formal court document or testament ever could. [1] Victorian Crime and Punishment, Court Procedures, The Assizes, http://vcp.e2bn.org/justice/page11548-court-procedures-assizes.html [2] Victorian Crime and Punishment, Court Procedures, The Assizes, http://vcp.e2bn.org/justice/page11548-court-procedures-assizes.html [3] Victorian Crime and Punishment, Court Procedures, The Assizes http://vcp.e2bn.org/justice/page11548-court-procedures-assizes.html Useful Links & PublicationsOnline
Publications
 Prison Hulks in the River Thames London. By State Library of New South Wales, CC BY-SA 3.0 au, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=42773391 Family history researchers are increasingly turning to autosomal DNA (atDNA) to help extend their ancestral knowledge and it is little wonder as it can be an immensely powerful tool. But are folks using atDNA testing to maximum effect? I suspect in a great many cases the answer is no. There are a myriad of reasons why this is the case but it is not my intention to cover them here. Rather, I shall be keeping this post simple by looking only at matches in Ancestry.com and focusing on three basic principles that can greatly enhance your chances of success. I cannot emphasise these three points enough:
Test as Many Family Members as Possible
Memorial Inscriptions in Cornhill Churchyard: These inscriptions were noted in 1918 and by the time these photographs were taken in 1986 much of the writing had already been lost. Today they are barely legible. 'Here Lyeth the body of George Smith who died 8 October 1690. Here rests also the body of his wife Elizabeth who died 2 July 1701' (Stone left and Centre) and 'Here lyeth the body of Robert Smith Portioner in Hornclove who died 22 January 1751 aged 90. Also Margaret his wife who died 27 April 1742 aged 60' (Stone to the right.) Testing relatives acts like signposts or way markers, giving us fixed points from which to start navigating the way through our DNA matches, from known points of shared ancestry towards the unknown. But before dashing off to purchase tests for every aunt, uncle, cousin etc., it is helpful to remember three basic principles to ensure the tests being purchased are relevant to your quest.
It is also important to recognise which relatives are relevant to test for a particular research scenario. For the remainder of this post I shall be using my tree, my DNA matches, and the DNA matches of my relatives who have also tested using an example of a specific paternal line hypothesis which came to light as result of this broader testing policy. It reveals connections to renowned Australian convict Ralph Hush, previously hidden from view due to a smokescreen of ‘selective’ genealogy that without atDNA may have remained undiscovered. I hope it will also illustrate what can be achieved from what essentially started out as set of dismal results. After many years, I still have only 149 matches in the Ancestry database with whom I share 20 cMs of DNA or more. My brother on the other hand has a slightly more respectable 229, that is 80 more individuals for whom Ancestry will currently display mutual matches. Although I have one or two sticking points in my tree, I have no specific ancestor mysteries to solve therefore my interests lie in uncovering all aspects of my ancestral past; but who do I have available to test?
Scenario One – Maternal Line Ancestral InvestigationsMy mother is very much still with us and has tested her DNA. Should I wish to investigate any generation of my maternal line my brother’s DNA will be of no additional benefit. Some of the maternal DNA my brother and I share will overlap and some will be different. Nonetheless, neither he nor myself will have inherited any DNA that our Mother does not carry herself. Nor will our combined DNA reflect the total genetic information carried by our mother. Approximately 25% will inevitably been lost during the recombination process as we were created.  My Mother on the right of the photo, with her twin sister on left. The other living sister is in the middle! Her identical twin will share exactly the same DNA as my mother and therefore will add no new genetic information to the investigation either. Nor will her children, (my first cousins), as the only DNA relevant to the investigation will have been inherited from their mother who is genetically identical to mine. For this reason these cousins will share nearer 25% of their DNA with myself and my brother rather than 12.5% making them genetically half siblings rather than first cousins. My mother’s other living sibling, however, is definitely one to test, as although some of the DNA she has inherited from her parents will be the same as that carried by the twins, some of it will also differ. On the same basis, the DNA of all three children of Mum’s deceased sibling will be relevant as they will carry portions of their mother’s genetic information which, as above, will have significant elements of overlap but crucially also elements that have not been inherited either by Mother or her other siblings. Scenario Two – Paternal Line Ancestral Investigations As my father is deceased, my brother’s DNA will be extremely useful if not vital to any investigation of my paternal ancestry. Although we match on roughly 45 – 52% of our total DNA (both maternal and paternal), the remainder is different. Even so, we are likely still to only reach around 75% of the DNA my father once carried himself. As my father had no siblings and his only first cousin available to test is unwilling to do so, the testing net has been cast wider to encompass his Aynsley-Smith second cousins, three of whom to date have been wonderfully helpful in this regard. Sisters Cathy and Vivie, and their first cousin Dick. Each shares a varying amount of DNA with both my brother and myself.  According to the Shared Centimorgan Project I share below the average (122 cMs) for a second cousin once removed (2c1r) relationship with all three and my brother Jeremy shares above. In fact, the whopping 250 cMs he shares with Dick is above the average (229 cMs) for a straight second cousin relationship, and this has paid real dividends. (It should be noted that the children of my father’s 1st cousin, (my own 2nd cousins) could also be tested but although they are a closer relationship to me, they are genetically further from the ancestral DNA, and in this particular case not as relevant to the investigation.) In terms of my paternal line research, testing to date has provided the following DNA signposts: My brother and I represent the DNA from ALL our father’s ancestral lines and thus could theoretically match with descendants of any of his blood relatives at any point in history. The DNA we share with our 2c1r Aynsley-Smith cousins, however, immediately catapults us genetically back to our 2nd great grandparents on our direct paternal Smith line. This is where the respective ancestral pathways between the 2c1r cousins merges with John Smith (1813 – 1881) and his wife Hannah Aynsley (1837 – 1922). In the absence of any closer relationship, the DNA my brother and I share with our Aynsley-Smith cousins MUST have been inherited through this couple. It therefore represents the DNA inherited from their own respective ancestors.  Interestingly, when our 4th cousin Jane (a 3rd cousin 1 removed to Cathy Vivie and Dick) on the same Smith line is added to the mix, the picture changes somewhat and I become the highest match of the five. Cathy shares no DNA with Jane at all, such is the fickle nature of atDNA!  Matching Mutual Matches to each other Before my brother and Dick tested their DNA with Ancestry, my paternal line research through DNA matching had stalled. I have only one mutual match with Cathy and Vivie which we believe from mutual matches of the mutual match, may relate to ancestors of Hannah Aynsley although we have yet to place them in the family tree.
Step One in the matching process was not to try and establish how these individuals matched my brother and/or Dick, but to try and establish some commonality as to how the matches were related to each other. The main reason for this is that the way in which matches match each other will generally be the way in which they link to the tester, or where the link to the tester springs from. This approach is particularly helpful if the relation that connects matches to your mutual ancestors is not yet in your family tree. Some of Dick and Jeremy’s matches already had small family trees but some invariably had none. As with any aspect of DNA matching it will be necessary to do some legwork, particularly reconstructing matches’ trees and spotting errors in those that already exist; how much work depends on the quality of information you have to work with. It varies every time! Conrad, who had a reasonable tree of 98 individuals was the first port of call. His research very quickly suggested he may share great grandparents or 2nd great grandparents with Mark (who has no tree) in Joseph Hibberson (1812 – 1890) and Mary Ann McCarthy (1831 – 1903) making Conrad and Mark 2nd to 3rd cousins with each other. This was a positive start as the relationship is not too close and date wise, it is also a similar generation to the point at which Dick and Jeremy’s pedigrees collide with John Smith and Hannah Aynsley. Mary Ann McCarthy’s mother was recorded as Phillis Hush, and she in turn was the daughter of Ralph Hush (1784 – 1860) and Margaret Robinson (1784 – 1862). Whilst the name did not appear in my family tree, the surname Hush was ‘ringing bells’.  Bypassing the matches with no trees at all for now, Nancy had a small tree with 7 people from which it was possible to quickly build her pedigree back through her grandmother Margaret Dunlop Hush to a William Hush baptised at Spital in 1778, the same day as his sister Elizabeth Hush. The parents of these two plus an unnamed child in 1779 together with a Margaret Hush baptised at Spittal Presbyterian Chapel in 1781 were Ralph Hush senior and his wife Sarah Taylor, of ‘Long Reach’ (Longridge) whose name DOES appear in my tree. From the fact that Mark, Conrad and Nancy all matched each other it was beginning to look likely that this couple were also the parents of Ralph Hush junior, the father of Phillis above. A further DNA match, ‘Jim’, at 19 cMs to my brother whose line traced back to William Hush 1778 was another mutual match to them all which would further evidence this hypothesis. From my initial investigations to date it appears that the relationships between these four are broadly as follows: Mark & Conrad 2 or 3rd cousins to each other 6th cousin to Nancy 6th cousin to Jim Nancy 4th cousin to Jim Dick & Jeremy 6th cousin once or twice removed to Conrad, Mark, Nancy and Jim Elsewhere, Leonard and Anne appear to be first cousins to each other and their paths converge with ‘Ernie’ who is another match of 22 cMs to my brother (but who does not match Dick) at a James Bell (1817 – 1887) and Christian Hastie (1821 – 1880). As well as Leonard and Anne, Ernie is also a mutual match to Conrad, Mark, Nancy and Elaine, but the potential upward link to John Smith d. 1742 and Elizabeth his wife has not yet been identified.  Distant relationships such as these have a great many ‘steps’ between individuals to establish the common connection or mutual ancestor. This example illustrates just how essential it is to have a family tree that is as broad as it is deep when looking to prove relationships that are hidden way back in the past. Build Out Your Tree in Every Direction As a family we are extremely fortunate in this regard as we have been left a legacy of family memorabilia and generations of extensive research. However, it is still not complete, as I don’t believe any family history ever truly is! There are always more relations to unearth and more information to discover. This branch of our family tree was no exception. Sarah Taylor who appears in my tree was born circa 1757 and is recorded as the daughter of James Taylor and Elizabeth Smith. Elizabeth Smith was the daughter of John Smith of ‘Horncliff Mill’ who was buried at Cornhill on 22 April 1742. It is believed the Christian name of John’s wife was Elizabeth but to date there is no hard evidence to back this up. It is, however, thought most unlikely to have been an Elizabeth Davidson widely reported online, who married a John Smith at Norham in 1694. A Bible, which was printed in 1615, is still in the family’s possession and the first entry for the birth of a child is George smith in 1722. I hardly think the couple would have had their first child after 28 years of marriage! Plus, if Elizabeth was ‘say’ 20 at the time of her marriage, she would have been aged 48 at the time of the birth of her first child! I rather think that the union identified either belongs to either a first marriage, an earlier generation, or a different family altogether as Smith is hardly an unusual name!  Top of Smith line in the tree. Nicholas b.1725 remains a mystery. He wrote his name in the family Bible and then vanishes - thus far without a trace. Perhaps DNA will bring him out of the shadows. In my tree next to Elizabeth Smith’s entry there is a note, ‘see ‘Taylor’ in Sarah Nicholson’s letters’. Sarah Nicholson (1843 – 1932) was an avid correspondent on all things family history and exchanged at least 32 letters with George Aynsley-Smith between 1909 and 20 December 1931, less than a month before her death on 13th January 1932. The Taylor family are mentioned in several of the letters. The first is dated 16th July 1912 in which Sarah wrote: There is a Miss Dodds, elderly, come to live with Mrs Lyle. She came from Bowsden and told Jane [Sarah’s sister] one evening that her grandmother was a cousin (1st cousin) of your grandfather Smith, so I went and saw her. She says her grandmother was a Taylor and they lived in Horncliffe as her grandfather Taylor fell down the bank and was lame ever after. There were 5 sisters Taylor: her grandmother married a Lyle , one married a Sanderson, a weaver at Norham, one a Bolton, one a Roxburgh Loaned and one a name I cannot spell – Falstone – all buried at Norham. Her mother’s family used to go to Spittal Church, so some of their registers will be there… In her next letter of 9th August 1912, she follows up with the following account: Leonard Taylor James Taylor, butcher, Eyemouth ***** Marjorie Taylor m. George Sanderson, weaver Norham ***** Ann Taylor m. Hoffman, a soldier at Berwick. [of whom I have written before in Tennis & a Teapot] ***** Sarah Taylor m. John Huish. He died from burns received at Kimmerston Hall when it was burned down. Sarah died at Berry Hill. [Sarah’s husband was actually called Ralph, not John, and she died at Harperidge, (Donaldsons Lodge) the home of her daughter Sarah rather than Berry Hill (Ford & Etal)] ***** Elizabeth Taylor m. Bolton, Horncliffe and her daughter married a Turner, Horncliffe ***** Margaret Taylor m. William Lyle, Felkington. Her daughter m. Peter Dodds and her granddaughter is now in Horncliffe. It would seem there is some confusion surrounding Sarah Taylor and her spouse, and knowing what I now know, I suspect Ms Nicholson, or her informant was trying their best at a cover up by laying a bit of a smokescreen. The fact of the matter is that Ralph Hush junior, son of Sarah Taylor and Ralph Hush senior was a convicted felon, who narrowly escaped the hangman’s noose, when his sentence of death for stealing sheep was commuted to transportation for life. The case has been written about extensively, much of which can be found online not least in the Australian convict records (which includes some rather spurious information) but also on his own Wiki page!  John Smith owns this book, God give him grace on it to look, And if this book do chance to find, This write will show that it is min, And if he be onest man, He will restore to me again, And I will thank him for his paines, As long as life in me remains, 1690, John Smith with my hand this day at Cornhill April the first. (Transcribed from Family Bible by George Aynsley Smith in 1915) One of these fine days it would be nice to read about some positive antics of ancestral relatives, but in the meantime I will happily take the odd criminal or two, or three as they add a considerable amount of ‘colour’. There is much more digging to do in this tranche of DNA, as I am only just scratching the surface in the Ancestry database, let alone matches elsewhere. It is incredible to think that a second cousin four times removed, who lived so long ago may hold the key to unlocking earlier generations of the Smith family for whom we currently hold just pieces of a much bigger jigsaw. It also shows that no matter how dismal your DNA matches, stick at it, test more family members, build out your tree and work out how those mutual matches are related to each other. It will pay dividends in the end! Useful LinksFor those of you interested in learning more about using DNA for historical research, here are a few links to webinars and instructional videos by my great friend and colleague Michelle Leonard who is renowned the world over as leader in the field of genetic genealogy and as a bit of a 'genes genuis':
How Testing Multiple Relatives Can Turbocharge Your DNA Research - Legacy Family Tree (Free until 2 June 2021). This webinar explains the relevance of testing multiple relatives in more depth, plus a whole lot more! If you don't already subscribe to Legacy Family Tree, access to their HUGE library of top quality webinars past and present comes highly recommended and can be purchased for only $49 per annum. Michelle has no less 22 webinar tutorials amongst in excess of 1500 available in the Legacy Family Tree library. 10% discount available if you subscribe before 1 June 2021 - use code 'turbo'. #TwiceRemoved Investigates DNA Natalie Pithers of Twice Removed interviews expert genetic genealogist Michelle Leonard, who shares her amazing DNA discoveries and family history stories. From identifying the bodies of WWI soldiers to personal feelings on a grandmother that died tragically you, Michelle’s stories give a fresh perspective on using DNA for family history. Making the Most of your Autosomal DNA Test - Family Tree Live 2019, Alexandra Palace Michelle Leonard’s talk gives an overview of how autosomal DNA testing can help you solve mysteries in – and confirm the accuracy of – your family tree. DNA is Dynamite - How to Ignite your Ancestral Research (Michelle Leonard) - Genetic Genealogy Ireland.This is a talk for beginners giving an overview of the basic information required to understand the three main types of DNA testing available for ancestral research. Michelle will explain how each test works and talk you through the first steps you should take once your results arrive. There are also links to a couple of events where you can catch Michelle live in the June newsletter - if interested either contact me or subscribe to the newsletter to keep up to speed with forth coming events. Kirk Session Records |
![Picture Extract from Gordon Registers re John Waite Pilloried in 1657 Reproduced courtesy of National Records of Scotland: 28 December 1657, Scotland’s People, OPR Births, Gordon [Kirk Session Minutes] 742/10/42.](/uploads/1/7/2/3/17231010/pilloried-in-1657_orig.jpg)
![Picture Extract from Gordon register John Waite in the Piller 1657 Reproduced courtesy of National Records of Scotland: 28 December 1657, Scotland’s People, OPR Births, Gordon [Kirk Session Minutes] 742/10/42.](/uploads/1/7/2/3/17231010/john-waite-enterd-the-piller-1657_orig.jpg)
![Picture Extract from Gordon registers - John Waite released from the piller 1657 Reproduced courtesy of National Records of Scotland: 28 December 1657, Scotland’s People, OPR Births, Gordon [Kirk Session Minutes] 742/10/42.](/uploads/1/7/2/3/17231010/released-from-the-piller_orig.jpg)
 Asna's Grandfather Rabbi Yehuda Leib Freedman c. 1847 . Photo courtesy of https://www.ajrrefugeevoices.org.uk/ |  Painting of Rabbi Yehuda Leib Freedman by Vivien Aynsley-Smith |
Asna’s paternal grandfather (Rabbi Yehuda Leib Freedman) and his family were immigrants who fled from the pogroms in Tsarist Russia and settled in Manchester. Asna said that she believed her mother’s family originally came from Germany and later lived in Latvia. Her mother, Janey Schneider, was born in Riga and came to England in 1892 at the age of 18, together with her mother Sarah Milner, her elder sister Hannah and Hannah’s husband Nachman.
Asna's Uncle and Aunt, Kalman and Btya (nee Thal). Photo courtesy of https://www.ajrrefugeevoices.org.uk/
In 2020, whilst researching my Jewish history, I came across the following article about Rabbi Jerachmiel Cofnas, my second cousin once removed, who was a Rabbi and Shochet in England. He was my mother’s cousin and son of Kalman and Batya who died in the Holocaust.
Asna’s cousin, Rabbi Jerachmiel Cofnas (1912 – 2010). Photo courtesy of https://www.ajrrefugeevoices.org.uk/
An interview for the Jewish Refugee Voices website:
(www.ajrrefugeevoices.org.uk/RefugeeVoices/Rabbi-Jerachmiel-Cofnas)
held in 2020 describes Jerachmiel's experience of coming from Poland to Britain in the late 1930’s.
(www.ajrrefugeevoices.org.uk/RefugeeVoices/Rabbi-Jerachmiel-Cofnas)
held in 2020 describes Jerachmiel's experience of coming from Poland to Britain in the late 1930’s.
'Having been born in 1912 in Kcynia (Deksnia) in Poland in the Vilna Geburnia area he arrived on a temporary permit for the Birmingham Synagogue and he describes his life and offers a fascinating glimpse into Jewish lifestyle at the turn of the century.
Jerachmiel had 2* brothers and 3 sisters. His father was a Rabbi and Shochet (a) and his grandfather, Rabbi Yehudah Leib Freedman, came to Manchester at the turn of the century. Jerachmiel also had uncles in Manchester. After marriage Jerachmiel’s father and mother came to Manchester, where they lived for 10 years and had 4 children but Jerachmiel’s father found life too irreligious for him and eventually moved back to Poland, where Jerachmiel was subsequently born. Jerachmiel’s mother was from Moldetchna, Russia where her father was a Dayan (b). Jerachmiel has vague memories of the First World War and soldiers passing through their small farming community. Life was very hard and they were often hungry. There were about 35 Jews in that farming community but the ground was not fertile and they barely eked a living. They had a shul (c) and led a religious life. He describes the hardships of living in a primitive environment and the intensity of religious life.
Jerachmiel and his siblings had private teachers and attended cheder and then went to Yeshivah (d) for older boys. They family moved from Deksnia to Aishishok and then to Ostryn. Jerachmiel went to Radin where he learnt in the Chofetz Chaim Yeshivah and described his memories of the Chofetz Chaim as well as of other great Rabbis in other Yeshivahs, such as Rabbi Shimon Shkob (Breinsker). Jerachmiel learnt to be a shochet from his father and he took semicha and learnt to be a mohel. His brother went to Chevron Yeshivah and then Manchester where he was a Rabbi in Birmingham and he arranged for Jerachmiel to come to Birmingham in the late 1930s.He says:
‘The place I was born was very small, almost like a kibbutz, there were 35 inhabitants and they were all Jewish. The only non-Jewish person was the one who looked after the flock. Everybody was issued with a plot of land, because there was plenty of land in Poland, not inhabited. All the inhabitants of that place were farmers. My father acted as the Rabbi there and, he was the shochet [kosher butcher].’
He found adjusting to live in England very hard since he was not used to seeing non-religious Jews and he knew no English. His sister-in-law taught him and he attended night school. He helped his brother in the shul and eventually took over from him in the New Synagogue in Birmingham. In 1943 he married Bertha Sternberg from Manchester and they had 3 children. He served as Rabbi, shochet and mohel in Birmingham for 45 years and found he got on well with the shul executives. He always saw the good in people and felt his role as mohel (e) brought him close to the congregants.'
Jerachmiel had 2* brothers and 3 sisters. His father was a Rabbi and Shochet (a) and his grandfather, Rabbi Yehudah Leib Freedman, came to Manchester at the turn of the century. Jerachmiel also had uncles in Manchester. After marriage Jerachmiel’s father and mother came to Manchester, where they lived for 10 years and had 4 children but Jerachmiel’s father found life too irreligious for him and eventually moved back to Poland, where Jerachmiel was subsequently born. Jerachmiel’s mother was from Moldetchna, Russia where her father was a Dayan (b). Jerachmiel has vague memories of the First World War and soldiers passing through their small farming community. Life was very hard and they were often hungry. There were about 35 Jews in that farming community but the ground was not fertile and they barely eked a living. They had a shul (c) and led a religious life. He describes the hardships of living in a primitive environment and the intensity of religious life.
Jerachmiel and his siblings had private teachers and attended cheder and then went to Yeshivah (d) for older boys. They family moved from Deksnia to Aishishok and then to Ostryn. Jerachmiel went to Radin where he learnt in the Chofetz Chaim Yeshivah and described his memories of the Chofetz Chaim as well as of other great Rabbis in other Yeshivahs, such as Rabbi Shimon Shkob (Breinsker). Jerachmiel learnt to be a shochet from his father and he took semicha and learnt to be a mohel. His brother went to Chevron Yeshivah and then Manchester where he was a Rabbi in Birmingham and he arranged for Jerachmiel to come to Birmingham in the late 1930s.He says:
‘The place I was born was very small, almost like a kibbutz, there were 35 inhabitants and they were all Jewish. The only non-Jewish person was the one who looked after the flock. Everybody was issued with a plot of land, because there was plenty of land in Poland, not inhabited. All the inhabitants of that place were farmers. My father acted as the Rabbi there and, he was the shochet [kosher butcher].’
He found adjusting to live in England very hard since he was not used to seeing non-religious Jews and he knew no English. His sister-in-law taught him and he attended night school. He helped his brother in the shul and eventually took over from him in the New Synagogue in Birmingham. In 1943 he married Bertha Sternberg from Manchester and they had 3 children. He served as Rabbi, shochet and mohel in Birmingham for 45 years and found he got on well with the shul executives. He always saw the good in people and felt his role as mohel (e) brought him close to the congregants.'
* Other sources say he had 3 brothers – Levi, Joshua and David
a. Shochet: A person certified by a rabbi or Jewish court of law to slaughter animals for food in the manner prescribed by Jewish law. Pronounced ‘sho sha’
b. Dayan: A Judge
c. Shul: A Synagogue
d. Yeshiva: An orthodox Jewish college or seminary.
e. Mohel: A circumcision practitioner
a. Shochet: A person certified by a rabbi or Jewish court of law to slaughter animals for food in the manner prescribed by Jewish law. Pronounced ‘sho sha’
b. Dayan: A Judge
c. Shul: A Synagogue
d. Yeshiva: An orthodox Jewish college or seminary.
e. Mohel: A circumcision practitioner
History of the Pogroms
Pogrom (or organised massacre or expulsion of a particular ethnic group) first came into frequent use as a term around 1881 after anti-Semitic violence erupted following the assassination of Czar Alexander II.
An article about a Jewish family would not be complete without reference to some of the atrocities perpetrated against them particularly, and just, within living memory. Asna’s friend and correspondent, Phil Casket, wrote at length about his parents being amongst the many families who emigrated from eastern Europe as a result of the pogrom of 1903.
An article about a Jewish family would not be complete without reference to some of the atrocities perpetrated against them particularly, and just, within living memory. Asna’s friend and correspondent, Phil Casket, wrote at length about his parents being amongst the many families who emigrated from eastern Europe as a result of the pogrom of 1903.
Kishinev (modern day Chisinau, Moldova) was one of the major towns in Bessarabia, a desperately poor part of Russia, between Moldavia and Ukraine. It had the highest infant mortality and illiteracy rates in the Russian empire, the fewest doctors and the fewest paved roads. Jews dominated nearly all the region’s towns, including Kishinev, which had a population that was well over one-third Jewish at the turn of the century. It was at this time that the pogroms were directed at the Jewish people in Russia and Eastern Europe.
The most famous pogrom of all began on Easter Sunday 1903 in Kishinev. Rocks were thrown at Jewish shops and the hostilities soon escalated from there. Businesses were ransacked – not one liquor shop was left unscathed. Two-thirds of Kishinev was affected. Entire streets were levelled with 49 Jews left for dead, more than 500 injured, 1300 houses and businesses looted and destroyed and 2000 families left homeless. But it was the violence of the attacks on Jewish people that was so staggering. They were hit with tables, killed with pitchforks and poles, smashed with crowbars. Amongst the many atrocities not suitable to mention here, one man had his eyes gouged out and numerous women and girls were sexually attacked. News of the pogrom and the atrocities soon travelled to America and with Kishinev being near the southern border the news also spread quickly into Europe.
The Kishinev pogrom, which was followed by the Nazi treatment of the Jews in the 1930s and 1940s, forms a very powerful background to many Jewish family’s history and the emigration of Jews out of Europe.
The Holocaust, also known as the Shoah, was the genocide of the European Jews before and during the Second World War. Asna’s uncle, Kalman, who was a Rabbi and Shochet born in Deksznie,Poland, and her cousins David and Sheni Freedman all died in the Shoah. Kalman and Asna’s father Joseph were two of the sons of Rabbi Yehuda Leib Freedman and his wife Miriam Zagar. After Miriam died, he married Minnie about whom little is known other than in a photo probably taken at their wedding which also shows three of his children by his first marriage.
The most famous pogrom of all began on Easter Sunday 1903 in Kishinev. Rocks were thrown at Jewish shops and the hostilities soon escalated from there. Businesses were ransacked – not one liquor shop was left unscathed. Two-thirds of Kishinev was affected. Entire streets were levelled with 49 Jews left for dead, more than 500 injured, 1300 houses and businesses looted and destroyed and 2000 families left homeless. But it was the violence of the attacks on Jewish people that was so staggering. They were hit with tables, killed with pitchforks and poles, smashed with crowbars. Amongst the many atrocities not suitable to mention here, one man had his eyes gouged out and numerous women and girls were sexually attacked. News of the pogrom and the atrocities soon travelled to America and with Kishinev being near the southern border the news also spread quickly into Europe.
The Kishinev pogrom, which was followed by the Nazi treatment of the Jews in the 1930s and 1940s, forms a very powerful background to many Jewish family’s history and the emigration of Jews out of Europe.
The Holocaust, also known as the Shoah, was the genocide of the European Jews before and during the Second World War. Asna’s uncle, Kalman, who was a Rabbi and Shochet born in Deksznie,Poland, and her cousins David and Sheni Freedman all died in the Shoah. Kalman and Asna’s father Joseph were two of the sons of Rabbi Yehuda Leib Freedman and his wife Miriam Zagar. After Miriam died, he married Minnie about whom little is known other than in a photo probably taken at their wedding which also shows three of his children by his first marriage.
Hannah Rabbi Yehuda Freedman Philip (Pinchas) Minnie (2nd wife) Annie
1881 - 1971 1849 – 1925 1879 – 1953 1810 – 1889 1868 – 1945
1881 - 1971 1849 – 1925 1879 – 1953 1810 – 1889 1868 – 1945
Certificates from The Central Database of Shoah Victims’ Names https://yvng.yadvashem.org/
Any family’s history raises the importance of talking to children and grandchildren about family members and prevailing circumstances in earlier days. In the case of the holocaust, it is well known and understood that many of the sufferers were, and their relatives still are, reluctant to talk about the difficult times and just want to forget. It is a relatively recent situation where people do discuss such atrocities with a view to teaching the younger generations and ensuring that such things are never allowed to happen again.
Asna’s family think that she certainly knew a lot more than she ever revealed about those horrendous times but not wanting to upset her children would rarely mention or discuss the issues. Apart from knowing that her father was a ‘Rebbe’ and that times were hard for her mother we knew virtually nothing of her childhood, that is, until we persuaded her to write her ‘memoirs’ which I have included in the article in Borders Ancestry for January 2021.
[1] National Archives, Moving Here – Migration Histories
https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.movinghere.org.uk/galleries/histories/jewish/settling/manchester_jewry_9.htm
[2] British Jews In The First World War, Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue,
https://www.jewsfww.uk/spanish-and-portuguese-synagogue-manchester-3162.php
Jewish Museum , Manchester, https://www.manchesterjewishmuseum.com/
[3] Soup and Reform: Improving the Poor and Reforming Immigrants through Soup Kitchens 1870–1910 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10761-017-0403-8
[4] BBC, Jewish time capsule from 1870s found in Manchester synagogue https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-manchester-54278284
https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.movinghere.org.uk/galleries/histories/jewish/settling/manchester_jewry_9.htm
[2] British Jews In The First World War, Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue,
https://www.jewsfww.uk/spanish-and-portuguese-synagogue-manchester-3162.php
Jewish Museum , Manchester, https://www.manchesterjewishmuseum.com/
[3] Soup and Reform: Improving the Poor and Reforming Immigrants through Soup Kitchens 1870–1910 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10761-017-0403-8
[4] BBC, Jewish time capsule from 1870s found in Manchester synagogue https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-manchester-54278284
Collections of correspondence not only make fascinating reading but are also fantastic sources of information for many historical disciplines, not least family historians. It is important, however, that the contents are correctly interpreted and contextualised, as if not, the result is a misaligned pedigree! The following is taken from the:
Old letters found in Loaned House at the death of Mrs White and taken possession of by Mrs Grace Ann Smith her daughter [wife of George Smith of Ancroft] and by her, handed to me Stephen Sanderson October and November 1865 ...’[1]
The Nicholson, Smith and other associated families such as the Middletons etc., about some of whom I have previously written, intermarried on several occasions and a goodly chunk of Norham’s churchyard collectively bears witness to their passing. Many of the early generations of these families are buried in close proximity to one another.
Smith and Nicholson Headstones in Norham Churchyard. Smith chest tombs to front and Nicholson the larger stones behind on the mound and to the left.
London, 28th January 1716
On the 28th January 1716, a young man wrote home to his family on Tweedside from London. The letter is written in an elegant italic hand which displays evidence of a good education and the content suggests a maturity that is possibly beyond his years.
Extract from document NRO1955/A/3 courtesy of Berwick Record Office.
He was about to embark on a new life in Maryland but had been delayed due to ‘frost so strong here of the like of it has not been seen these many years, our Ships are all fast yet tho we have had a Thaw these eight days’ as London was held in an icy grip. He hoped to be underway within the next fourteen days aboard a ship called 'The Colchester' under the command of a Captain Samson.
'The previous day he had received a letter from his mother which brought news of grave illness in a close family member. She had also sought his advice about a possible apprenticeship for his brother, John, to a Mr Bordley who was currently in Newcastle. Whilst his mother is concerned for John’s welfare & hopes Mr Bordley will be kind to John and provide him with ‘all the necessaries’ during his seven years, (for she was unable to), the writer is more concerned his brother may be hindered by forgetting his Latin! He concedes, however, he would be ‘very glad’ to have his brother near him.
His ‘Master’ is a Merchant who has loaded ‘scarce any thing youl name but he has bought’ aboard ship in preparation of departure. The writer has with him his own parcel containing ‘a dozen Laced Hatts’ on which he has expended the last of his money, perhaps in the hope of trading them for a profit at his destination.
He closed his letter:
Love to my Brother & sisters & all friends, & that God almighty may bless you &
keep you all in good health till I see you again is the earnest prayer of him who
is your most loving Brother
till Death
[note ‘Brother’ written in the singular.]
keep you all in good health till I see you again is the earnest prayer of him who
is your most loving Brother
till Death
[note ‘Brother’ written in the singular.]
The penman’s name was James Nicholson and his letter tells the reader a good deal about himself, his family and their situation in just a few short lines.
Information contained in the letter
Collections such as these are a real boon for historians as they are packed with references to so many aspects of history that extend beyond the interest in the family to whom the letters relate. Following this particular archive of correspondence takes the reader on a series of social, economic, political as well as personal journeys through the eighteenth century on both side of the Atlantic, with all manner of associated hardships and joys.
These topics are not the feature of this month’s blog, however, but the use and analysis of collections such as these and how they can make us better researchers, is a topic planned for a future article for Family Tree Magazine; so keep an eye open for it! Instead, this month’s blog asks just who were the parents of James Nicholson our intrepid traveller in 1716, for he was NOT the son of George Nicholson of Loanend and his wife Mary as widely accepted and documented. [2] Somehow, somewhere a spot of misalignment has clearly occurred!
These topics are not the feature of this month’s blog, however, but the use and analysis of collections such as these and how they can make us better researchers, is a topic planned for a future article for Family Tree Magazine; so keep an eye open for it! Instead, this month’s blog asks just who were the parents of James Nicholson our intrepid traveller in 1716, for he was NOT the son of George Nicholson of Loanend and his wife Mary as widely accepted and documented. [2] Somehow, somewhere a spot of misalignment has clearly occurred!
James Nicholson of South River, Maryland d. 1764 – the Evidence
The ‘established’ pedigree in public circulation records that James Nicholson who emigrated to Maryland in 1716, was the son of George Nicholson (1641 – 26 Jun 1727) of Loanend, Horncliffe, Northumberland and his wife Mary (c.1639 – Nov 1704). Taking this first letter alone and in isolation strongly suggests this simply cannot be for the following reasons:
- In 1716 James is corresponding with his mother. This would have been impossible if his Mother had been Mary as she had died in 1704!
- He has a brother called John. George and Mary are not recorded as having had a son named John.
- As James is discussing John’s future with his mother, and indeed looking for a potential situation for his sister Margaret too, it would suggest that his father is dead. George Nicholson of Loaned did not die until 1727!
When subsequent correspondence is taken into consideration the evidence against the parentage suggested is compounded:
- James continues to correspond with his mother on several occasions well into the 1730s.
- John is mentioned again in letters dated 1717 where it appears he is to be apprenticed as a surgeon and £5 has been awarded from the ‘Dean & Chapter’ towards his costs
- In a letter to his mother dated 1st April 1717, although a date is not given, his father’s earlier death is confirmed to have been the case.
At first glance it would appear the letters, which constitute crucial primary evidence, were not consulted as part of the research into this particular area of the Nicholson family tree. Whilst this is altogether disappointing and of some concern to me, what is most surprising is the fact this glaring error has not been spotted before now, particularly as Philip Aynsley-Smith spent a great deal of time researching the Nicholson family in the late 1980s. For a basic error such as this to have escaped his meticulous research and recording thereof is most out of character. Needless to say on further investigation Philip had indeed spotted the problem and taken steps to have it rectified.
How the errors in the Nicholson pedigree occurred
In an attempt to source the origin of the misalignment a bit of digging in Philip’s records was required. It appears there was more than one single contributory event that led to it appearing in print.
- In the first instance to better understand the various family connections, Philip had transcribed, indexed and footnoted the 32 letters on all things genealogical exchanged between Miss Sarah Nicholson and his father George between 1909 and 1931. In late 1987 he was contacted by a fellow Nicholson researcher, based in Brisbane, Australia. In a letter to Philip dated 7th December 1987 the researcher explained how a chance meeting in Hong Kong by an aunt had led to her introduction to the Reverend Nigel Nicholson. ‘When the Rev. Nigel’s first letter arrived containing a pedigree dating back to the 1600s, [they] were ecstatic.’ She further confirms that:
- Clearly Philip wrote immediately to Rev. Nicholson asking for details of his sources as he received a letter in reply on January 18th 1988. Rev. Nicholson confirmed these sources as follows:
- In a further letter dated 2nd February 1988 Rev. Nicholson refers to a reference in paragraph 2 of Philip’s letter to NRO 1955/A with reference to ‘James Nicholson who emigrated to Maryland…’ He continues:
(Also in note 5 I see he wrote a letter to his mother on 1st April 1717. I have her death recorded as 6.12.1704 aged 65 in Norham Eleanor Mary. Clearly this wrong – Can you spread any light on this?)
- From a further note in the letter he sent Philip a copy of his family tree ‘for comment, alteration and addition …’ Philip clearly obliged:
( Many thanks indeed for your letter of 15th March – and with all the material comments (in Red ink!) and useful extra information that I hadn’t got. I must say thank you for putting me right regarding page 1 – and the generation of George – I clearly was wrong there – and certainly needed red ink. I have amended my tree accordingly.)
Sadly, there is no documentation of exactly which George he writes but given previous correspondence I strongly suspect it was regarding James Nicholson’s incorrect parentage. It appears the amendments may never have been made, as the misalignment of James’ parentage has persisted into the 2003 edition of his book, some six years after Philip’s death.
From this evidence alone it would appear that the researcher in Brisbane has in good faith recreated the pedigree as given to her by the Rev Nigel Nicholson and attached it to another family history published in Australia in 2016.[3] The Rev Nigel Nicholson in turn derived his information from historian John Crawford Hodgson and was unaware of the errors and amendments that should have been made until they were brought to his attention by Philip. As Philip was to discover, this was not the first time Hodgson’s Nicholson pedigree had fallen under the scrutiny of a family member, but that evidence does not belong here.
 | Fortunately, this particular error has had a minimal ‘knock-on effect’. A letter written by Robert Nicholson of Loanend in 1821 states that George and Mary left four children, three sons; Ralph, Joseph and Robert, and one daughter who is unnamed. The current pedigree lists 6, but with the removal of James and his sister Margaret who married a Mr Patterson, the numbers and names would tally. The error, however, still casts doubt over the validity of other areas of the early Nicholson pedigree, which appear to be not unfounded. |
The earlier Generation – Errors & Omissions
The Parentage of William Nicholson gentleman of Berwick upon Tweed died 1690.
The ‘Master’ of whom James Nicholson, our intrepid traveller writes was a William Nicholson of South River, Maryland, a tobacco grower, Merchant and landowner. William’s wife died of measles on 9th March 1717 and William, followed shortly after in 1719. James Nicholson was recorded in his Will as both a servant, friend and as an Executor. He was bequeathed £5 a young horse and a suit of mourning clothes but nowhere was any form of kinship recorded or inferred.[4]
I give and bequeath unto my servant James Nicholson Five Pounds Current money and a young horse formerly belonging to Sam[ue]l Burgess and a Suit of mourning about Four pounds or Five pounds prict Item
William of Maryland was undoubtedly the son of William Nicholson, a wealthy gentleman of Berwick upon on Tweed who died in 1690. He left a detailed Will dated the 15th April of the same year, which names his surviving children and places executorship thereof in the hands of his son William and a nephew Cuthbert Brady.[5] The accompanying inventory dated 20 February 1691 totalled £78 3s 8d.
 | The Pedigree has aligned William senior as a son of another George Nicholson of Loanend who died in 1655 and his wife Eleanor. However, the Will left by this George, written the 22 February 1653/4 is extremely specific with regard to the inheritance of land at Horncliffe in favour of male heirs; he names each of his three sons Robert, George and Ralph, as eldest, second and third son successively and their lawfully begotten male heirs.[6] Only after the possibility of a male heir has been exhausted was the land to pass to the heirs of his daughter Beele. |
Given the attention to detail here and in other clauses of his Will I find it somewhat strange that if he had had a son named William neither he, nor his heirs, were mentioned at all.
The Missing Generation
Missing from the pedigree entirely are two key individuals who nonetheless left evidence of their passage in the form of a probate Bond & Inventory and a Will & Inventory. One dates from 1689 and the other 1690, which when William Nicholson of Berwick is added to the equation, makes a total of three Nicholsons with potential connections to Loanend to die within a twelve-month period. The first absentee is a John Nicholson of Loanend whose Will is dated 5th July 1689 and accompanying Inventory the 29th July of the same year.
[Extract from North East Inheritance Database, DPR/I/1690/N3/2.] A True & perfect Inventory of the goods and Chattels which John Nicholson late of Hornecliff (alias) Horcliffloanend in the County pallatine of Durham yeoman, Taken Vallued & Apprized the nine & twentieth day of July Anno D[omi]ni 1689 by us whose names are hereunder Subscribed
His Will mentions the following 3 children
The second individual who is currently absent from the pedigree is a Robert Nicholson of Loaned who died sometime before his Inventory was prepared on the 14 April.[7]
[Extract North East Inheritance Database DPR/I/1/1690/N5] Aprill the 14th 1690 A True Inventary of All the Goods And Chattels which belong to Robert Nickolson of horclief lonend Lattly Deceased Taken And Aprised by those whose names Are under written This 14 day of Aprill in the year of our Lord 1690
Sadly the relating Bond DPR/I/3/1690/B22 is not available online which might have held clues to his relations through whoever was granted administration of his estate. Is it possible this is Robert the eldest son of George who died in 1655?
Whatever the relationship may have been, it is eminently clear that the individuals in both cases farmed, if not owned, the land at Horncliffe Loanend. As both John and Robert appear after it is stated Loanend was purchased in 1626, they, and their offspring if any, should also feature in the family tree. The fact they do not would suggest that their relationship to one another as well as to others in the early part of the pedigree has not yet been determined. In the limited time spent on the collection to date I can shed no light on the matter either beyond expressing an opinion that they were undoubtedly family members who have, for whatever reason, been overlooked or omitted.
So, who were James Nicholson of Maryland’s Parents?
As to the parentage of James Nicholson who sailed to Maryland in 1716, although not 100% verified I can be a little more certain. A kinship to the Loanend Nicholsons certainly existed at least by marriage, as I strongly believe he was brother to Elizabeth Nicholson, wife of Robert Nicholson of Loanend and one of at least 6 children born to the Rev Alexander Nicholson d.1711 and his wife Alison Home whom he married at Gordon in 1685.
Top Tip!
Be cautious in taking relationships too literally; a brother may mean brother-in-law or sometimes even a more distant relative, and a cousin may be far more removed than first. Customs surrounding forms of address and terms of endearment differed from what we know today, so it is as well to be on your guard to prevent misalignments appearing in a family tree.
(If you are interested in my transcripts of the Wills mentioned in the above post please contact me for copies.)
[1] The original letters and other documents in this collection are deposited at Berwick Record Office NRO 1955/A.
[2] The Rev Canon Nigel Nicholson & Mrs Rosemary Kitson, ‘Nicholson being a Compilation of Family trees of Nichsolon and Nicolson …’, Gateshead, 2003, Vol II. p.554; Michael White, ‘19th Century Pioneer:
Frank Villeneuve Nicholson Family in Australia’, Appendix I - George Nicholson of Loanend down to Frank Villeneuve Nicholson (1655 to 1898) Compiled by Kaye Mobsby p.12, Brisbane 2016; Circa 70 Ancestry Online Trees; etc.
[3] Michael White, ‘19th Century Pioneer: Frank Villeneuve Nicholson Family in Australia’, Appendix I - George Nicholson of Loanend down to Frank Villeneuve Nicholson (1655 to 1898) Compiled by Kaye Mobsby p.12, Brisbane 2016
[4] England & Wales, Prerogative Court of Canterbury Wills, 1384-1858 for Gulielmi Nicholson, PROB 11: Will Registers, 1713-1722, Piece 572: Shaller, Quire Numbers 1-48 (1720)
[5] North East Inheritance Database DPR/I/1/1691/N4/1-2 & DPR/I/1/1691/N4/3
[6] North East Inheritance Database DPRI/1/1664/N3
[7] North East Inheritance Database DPR/I/1/1690/N5/1-2
[2] The Rev Canon Nigel Nicholson & Mrs Rosemary Kitson, ‘Nicholson being a Compilation of Family trees of Nichsolon and Nicolson …’, Gateshead, 2003, Vol II. p.554; Michael White, ‘19th Century Pioneer:
Frank Villeneuve Nicholson Family in Australia’, Appendix I - George Nicholson of Loanend down to Frank Villeneuve Nicholson (1655 to 1898) Compiled by Kaye Mobsby p.12, Brisbane 2016; Circa 70 Ancestry Online Trees; etc.
[3] Michael White, ‘19th Century Pioneer: Frank Villeneuve Nicholson Family in Australia’, Appendix I - George Nicholson of Loanend down to Frank Villeneuve Nicholson (1655 to 1898) Compiled by Kaye Mobsby p.12, Brisbane 2016
[4] England & Wales, Prerogative Court of Canterbury Wills, 1384-1858 for Gulielmi Nicholson, PROB 11: Will Registers, 1713-1722, Piece 572: Shaller, Quire Numbers 1-48 (1720)
[5] North East Inheritance Database DPR/I/1/1691/N4/1-2 & DPR/I/1/1691/N4/3
[6] North East Inheritance Database DPRI/1/1664/N3
[7] North East Inheritance Database DPR/I/1/1690/N5/1-2
Just how well do, or did we know our parents, grandparents, or indeed any of our forebears? This month’s blog demonstrates the importance of memoir and recording first-hand experiences, recollections and reflections for future generations. It is written by my second cousin once removed Catherine (Cathy) Aynsley-Smith and is an extract taken from Chapter 8 of her family history book which is headed FREEDMAN AND COFNAS ANCESTRY, “My Mother’s Story”.
Cathy, her sister Vivie and I share mutual ancestors in John Smith (1813 – 1881) and Hannah Aynsley (1837 – 1922). They are granddaughters of my great-granduncle George Aynsley-Smith senior (1886 – 1942), (who along with his eldest son Philip, were the compilers of so much of our mutual paternal line family history), and his wife Jeanne Eugenie Mournetas (1878 – 1947). Their father was the second child of three sons and one daughter born to the couple, George Aynsley-Smith junior, (Dick), ‘a nickname he had been given when very young by the family cook due to his love of spotted-dick pudding. Or so the story goes.’ Their mother was Asna Freedman, and this is her story …
Asna Freedman pictured in 1934.
Extracts from ‘My Mother’s Story’
My mother, Asna Freedman, was born to Jewish parents Joseph Freedman and Jane (Janey Myers) Schneider at 57 Lord Street, Cheetham, Manchester on 4th May 1914. (Lord Street was also sometime home of the Jewish Soup Kitchen.) She was the youngest of eight children born to the couple. Her eldest brother was Abraham (Abe) born in 1896. He was followed by a sibling in 1901 who died in 1911 and whose name is not known, then Miriam (1897), Golda (1900) who died aged 17 from the world-wide influenza epidemic. There followed Frank (1903), Sally (1905), David (1909) and lastly Asna (1914).
The little I know about her early life and her family comes from the odd snippets of information she told me and from notes that she wrote in later life. Some of her life experiences are described in the ‘diaries’ that she wrote at my request when she was in her eighties. Much of that information was new to me as she rarely mentioned her childhood and in fact, the diaries tell far more than I can. They give an interesting flavour of various parts of her life which I have copied verbatim.
Memories of her young days written by Asna in 2001
Cathie once suggested I write down incidents in my life as they came to mind & this morning, Sept 18th 2001, I am doing just that. I received a notice in the post this morning from the BHA (British Humanist Assn) about a Xmas holiday in Buxton, so memories came flooding back.
My mother still only in her forties suffered from Osteo-Arthritis, then known as just Rheumatism, & each year went to Buxton for a month to 'take the treatment' hers being mainly mud applications & drinking the Spa water. The year before the death of my father he looked after me at home, but after his death when I was 8 years old my mother took me with her for possibly 2 years running until she could no longer afford the treatment though we stayed in a simple little flat.
After arrise (sic) & settling in we would go shopping, my mother buying a selection of young vegs then coming into season & would make a soup containing new carrots, peas, beans pots etc cooked slowly in milk; [we buy bread?] she always bought me a treat – a large bun of choux pastry bun (as my pudding) filled with fresh cream from a wonderful bakery.
Our next journey was down to the Pump where she would produce her little silver 'collapsible' cup to drink the so called healing waters. I waited in a queue of children all anxious to man the pump & each of us would be allowed to 'serve' a few people.
 Asna Freedman's stainless steel collapsible mug used to take the 'Buxton Waters'. |  Asna Freedman's stainless steel collapsible mug used to take the 'Buxton Waters' extended. |
Although pumping was quite difficult for small children nevertheless we wouldn't forego this pleasure which I looked forward to daily.
During the months stay we would go to the Buxton Opera House to see a musical two I remember, No No Nanette, Maid of the Mountains. Perhaps we also saw some plays which I don't remember as my mother loved the theatre & Cinema. At home we saw a film every Sat. evening possibly in the winter when the Sabbath ended in time for the film. The stars were Rudolf Valentino, Paula Negrie [Pola Negri] , Gloria Swanson & of course silent until the first 'talkie' with Al Johnson. I loved all this so I suppose my liking for the Arts started then. At about the age of 12 my brother David bought a Record Player – a free standing console model, where the records were kept in the cupbd of lower part, & then I heard my first opera arias on 78s. The Rigoletto Quartet + excerpts from Cav & Pag. etc. David also took me to hear the Henry Wood Concerts & once to a Jazz Concert with a famous American Saxophone player. He also took me to several plays – B. Shaw's mostly, by the M/c Rep. Co. which produced many actors later to become well-known in the London theatres. So, despite my lack of formal higher education through straightened circumstances I had a rich cultural childhood (including books) not always available to children in poor to moderate circumstances & I think this in part is due to Jewish people wanting to enrich their lives, by self-education not unlike the Welsh & Irish.
Asna’s notes continue:
Recollections 26.10.93
… My childhood wasn’t easy but I was ‘lucky’ in having access to good books & being influenced by three of my older siblings who were broadminded & more radical. Another influence in my early teens, when joining a friend to help in her father’s shop (lock-up shop with no living accommodation) in a poor Salford district was the sight of real poverty. Children with no shoes (Phil Casket whose family were poor remembers this & himself wore none in early years) & torn clothes. The mothers would pay 1/-d or up to 2/-d (todays 6p & 10p) every week & buy some essential piece of clothing & be forever in debt. Streets were dirty & houses unkempt & men and some women drank heavily using money (? 1d pint for beer at that time) they could ill afford & which should have been spent on food. But who could blame them, as now, there was no way out of the poverty trap – (the recession of the 1920s & the 1926 General Strike). My friend’s father had made good profits from selling surplus army clothing after the 1914-18 War & bought himself a nice house - small but comfortable in a pleasant M/c district. He didn’t make the huge profits that many did during the war years & worked hard. However, these differences affected my way of reasoning & I came to the conclusion that the ‘System’; had to be changed & thus became a Socialist.
Sally was my biggest influence & I suppose being without a father from the age of 8 I ‘looked up’ to the older members of my family. My Mother’s religious beliefs didn’t influence me at all & although my father was religious & a keen Zionist, he was politically a Socialist believing in the formation of the Kibbutz in Israel. (What was then Palestine). He took no part in British politics as his endeavours were solely propelled to the causes of Zionism & not long before his illness & death was making plans for our emigration to Palestine. He went to Berlin to have an operation for removal of cataracts in both eyes, the surgery being more reliable there in those days. But even so he needed long convalescence which unfortunately he did not take and following his return home contracted meningitis and died a week later.
Asna's greatest influence, her sister Sally photographed circa 1926
Asna often talked about days spent rambling in the Derbyshire countryside with other friends. Rambling clubs provided not just recreation but an escape from the city and poverty around them but also an environment where they could discuss social and political issues whilst enjoying the freedom of the moors.
In her teens she had the intellectual stimulation of literature, politics, religion and social injustice. The latter created a desire for a solution which eventually brought her and many others to communism. Having lost her father at a very young age maybe weakened the pressure to conform which was accepted by other Jewish youngsters who were unwilling to marry out or to smoke in the street on Shabbos [the Sabbath]. Those who became communist often described themselves as ‘rebels.’
I remember my teenage years at home in St Albans, when we would have many political discussions and Asna would often mention like-minded friends (Beck Caskett and Pearl Binder) and relatives (Sally and Frank) who influenced her political thinking even though she was a lot younger. I cannot remember my mother ever talking about anti-Semitic attitudes whilst she was at school and in fact she her sister Sally, and many others moved to London looking for other social ‘beliefs’, considering them being more relevant than religion. The explanation as to why so many Jews were attracted to communism in the 1930s was that the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) was opposed to fascism and in communism they found a form of self-defence against the fascists.
Asna continues ...
… In those days in England children could leave school at 14 and even though I was told by my Headmistress I had a “promising future” and was offered a place at Manchester Grammar School if I stayed on, I decided to leave. The Depression and General Strike of 1926 made things very difficult for my mother and so I took employment in an office and went to evening classes to continue my education and also did a good deal of reading becoming both a socialist and atheist in the process.
 Asna Freedman with husband George Aynsley-Smith (Dick) | But I remember her telling me on many an occasion how this curtailment of her formal education disappointed her and affected her future life. In the 1920s her sister Sally went to work in London and some years later at the age of nineteen Asna left Manchester to follow her. Due to the poverty she saw in her childhood she developed an interest in politics and through attending political meetings and demonstrations she met my father Dick (George Aynsley-Smith junior). When in her eighties she would often talk about their life together and describe how they ‘had 44 happy years together’ and explain how he came from a Quaker family but that as ‘he too felt the same about religion and politics as I did so that there was no disharmony on these issues, nor on any others that matters, such as the emancipation of women, equality in the home and workplace etc.. I felt very bereft when he died over 16 years ago and still do.’ |
Sadly, her marriage to Dick, who was not Jewish, displeased her elder brother Abe - who was acting in loco parentis at the time - and hence caused her separation from most family members. Asna used to talk quite often about how upset she was that Abe objected to her marrying my father and rent his clothes when she said she was marrying out. There was a common belief that Jewish parents treated ‘marrying out’ like death and would sit in mourning for the child.
Recollections 20.11.93
All sorts of thoughts pass through my mind in the morning and today, for some unknown reason, my mind went back to my brother, Abe.
Strange. I cannot recollect anything about him before he married in 1921. He was in the Army in the ‘Great War’ (1914-1918) & I seem to remember him in ‘Kahki’ (sic) uniform on his return but no other memories of him at home until I used to visit him & his wife, Emma, at their home & even then only after the birth of their first daughter, Eileen, when I was 8 years old. I remember that Emma made my first gym slip when I started secondary school & seemed bad-tempered at the fittings & ‘ticking me off’ for various reasons.
Abe Freedman's marriage to Emma Simon in June 1921. (Asna bridesmaid front left) Wonderful example of 1920s wedding photo and fashion - brides headdress, very large bouquets, serious faces and lack of hats for women.
However, I digress, as I was actually thinking of Abe in a much later period in connection with myself. I went up to M/c to tell him of my intended marriage which he opposed on grounds of religion (as I knew my mother would too) but said if I intended to go ahead – which I did – advised me not to disclose this to my mother & I followed his advice – perhaps I should say his wishes – which I’ve always regretted. I’m sure she would eventually have become reconciled (she had met Dick in London & when I tentatively brought up the question of our marrying, put the same religious objection though she thought ‘he was very nice’ & I am certain that knowing & seeing Cathie, my first baby, would have given her some pleasure in the last few months; she died in Aug ’43 without knowing I was married or of Cathie’s existence. Something I cannot remember without pain. What surprised me was being warmly received by both Abe & Emma when I called some months later with Cathie whilst staying in M/c with Sylvia & Maurice for a few weeks during the heavy bombing. After that first ‘reconciliation’ we remained on amicable terms, but didn’t meet again only communicating by letter & a phone call – before mother’s death.
 Asna's father Joseph Freedman |  Asna's mother Janey Schneider |
As a child in a Jewish family Asna was well aware of the hardships endured and the religious practices that were so important in her upbringing. In her diaries in 2001 she wrote:
The diaspora of Jewish people to Europe was to escape from the persecution that beset them continually in Russia and Eastern Europe. But they had a hard time in the countries where they settled with only low paid, mostly manual work, open to them. There were certain periods over the centuries where they did enjoy freedom to pursue their cultural and professional careers as in Spain and Germany and for a short time in England but these periods always passed with further oppression and discrimination and so they fled to whichever country would take them. In the time of the Spanish Inquisition many Jews converted to Christianity otherwise it meant death, unless they could escape and some came to England.
I remember them in Manchester when I was a child as their religious practices were slightly modified allowing them to use transport on Saturday (the Jewish Sabbath) and as many were quite affluent having brought their wealth with them from Spain, we saw them arrive to their special Synagogues in their cars – quite a phenomenon in those days of the early 20s. The Synagogues were called ‘Reform Synagogues’. I remember when a young child going to our own Synagogue and sitting in the Balcony where all the women sat – we had a good view of all the happenings below. At a certain part of the Service the Scrolls – “Torahs” were brought out of their little Ark and carried round, their coverings were of white satin, which I thought was lovely!
I was told by Sally that my parents experienced hard times but always ‘pulled through’. I don’t know a great deal about my parents’ early married life but Jewish immigrants had a hard time and in those days it was difficult for them to work in the professions or follow a career, the only work being available was manual (in the tailoring trade mostly) or in business.
I believe at one time my father ventured into the coal business, having one employee to deliver, but he was no businessman and was a soft touch when families were badly off with no heating in winter and did not insist on payment. This venture didn’t last long! As my father’s attempt in business wasn’t very successful and having been a teacher in the Jewish Community in Russia, he started a small school. By the time I was born he had been teaching Hebrew in a room in the Synagogue which I visited with messages or whatever for my father. Whilst waiting till there was a break I’d sit and watch and listen but not understand apart from a few everyday words. Girls were not included in this education as primarily it was to prepare the boys for their Bar Mitzva at the age of 13. My father was called a Rebbe i.e. teacher & my Grandfather was a Rabbi – the Religious Head (Minister) of the local Jewish community.
The boys came after their English school-day finished and for a full day on a Sunday. My Father also officiated in the local Synagogue and helped my Grandfather in his duties as a Rabbi both were held in high regard by the local Jewish community in our area – Jewish people seemed to have lived in various areas of Manchester by the time I came on the scene.
Freedman family with Miriam and Abe to the rear, Asna in the centre foreground flanked by her parents Joseph and Janey
In 1998 Asna wrote a little about her parents and their social and religious beliefs. Her paternal grandfather (Rabbi Yehuda Leib Freedman) and his family were immigrants from the pogroms in Tsarist Russia and settled in Manchester. Asna believed her mother’s family originally came from Germany and later lived in Latvia. Her mother, Janey Schneider, was born in Riga and came to England in 1892 at the age of 18 together with her mother Sarah Milner and other family members. With Holocaust Memorial Day having just passed on 27th January, the family’s story and how the Holocaust, also known as the Shoah, touched Asna’s family too, together with Cathy’s discoveries regarding the wider family and its legacy will be continued in part II.
Asna Freedman's two daughters Cathy and Vivie Aynsley-Smith photographed in 2013
In the meantime I hope you have enjoyed this brief glimpse into Asna’s memories of her younger self and touching recollections of the relationships with her family particularly her own mother. Without the diaries her feelings, emotions, joys and regrets, which say so much about her as a person would have been lost. I know many of you have taken the opportunity presented by ‘lockdowns’ to commit your own memories to paper, but if you are yet to do so I would urge you all to get writing!
This month’s blog is in response to an increasing number of requests, queries and comments I receive concerning surnames. The most common queries involve spelling, or why ancestors can’t be found, but with more and more men testing their Y-DNA either to solve a mystery of an unknown male ancestor or to uncover more about the origins of their patrilineal or direct male line, test results are throwing up more questions than ever; Why do I not know any of the matches with my surname, why are there different surnames in my matches, why is my surname not amongst my matches.
The Coronation of King Harold, Scene 29, Bayeux Tapestry. Wiki Commons
Surname Spellings
Questions or comments regarding the spelling of surnames continue to crop up regardless of countless blogs and articles on the topic. I would be rich indeed if I had a penny for every time I heard, they can’t be related as their name is spelled differently! Therefore, although one rule by no means fits all and there are always exceptions, I shall try to set out a few pointers.
Top Tips regarding Surnames in Documentary Evidence
- What is the period? English spellings were largely phonetic – the first dictionary of standardised English language was published in 1755, but even afterwards words continued to be written as they sounded or were pronounced.
- Was the individual/family literate? Look for signatures on supporting records – have they been handwritten or substituted by a mark? If the latter, then the spelling of the surname would have relied on the literacy and interpretation of the clerk or scribe recording the event.
- Were the family foreign or from outside the area? This also includes folks from other parts of the British Isles and Ireland. Unfamiliar sounding names including those from Ireland and Scotland frequently appear with variant spellings that search engines don’t pick up. Think phonetically, use regional dialects and accents, put yourself in place of the clerk or scribe, be generous in your use of wildcards, and beware the Anglicised Scot or Irishman who has dropped his ‘Mac’! (NB. Beyond the Borders in Scotland, lookout for names in Gaelic)
- ‘The family fell out and/or they changed their name to distinguish between different branches’. Hmmm, whilst there may well be instances where this may be the case, I have yet to clap eyes on documented evidence beyond family legend having been committed to paper. It is far more likely that the spelling became standardised in different places at different points in time but actually has the same point of origin.
Y-DNA - The Test for Surnames
Death of King Harold in 1066 taken from a scene on Bayeux Tapestry. Wiki Commons
Whilst the numbers of men testing their Y-DNA remains relatively small, the test is increasing in popularity and the numbers of testers is increasing rapidly. The relative paucity of testers accounts for one of the most common reasons for a lack of matches sharing a surname. The environment and way in which results are presented is also rather different to at-DNA and gives rise to other specific questions relating to surnames, or perhaps lack of them!
Y-DNA is the definitive test for ‘surnames’ as it is limited to male testers only as it passes solely from father to son and is neither inherited nor carried by women. It works by testing either STRs (Short Tandem Repeats) or SNPs (Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms) on the Y chromosome. The introductory test for investigating a surname using Y-DNA is the STR test which tests numbers of STR markers 12, 37, 67 or 111. The higher the number of markers tested the more accurate the prediction becomes regarding in which generation the match with another tester has occurred.
The Family Tree DNA programme has parameters for returning potential matches based on the number of differences (Genetic Distance) that occur on markers between two testers, subject to the level of markers tested.
In such a way matches which differ on more than one marker in 12 tested, two in 25, four in 37 tested etc., will not be shown as matches at those levels. However, the more markers tested the greater the tolerance of differences. By the time 111 markers are tested, matches with up to 10 differences (a genetic distance of 10) will be returned. However, if 5 of these genetic differences occurred on the first 37 markers tested, that particular match will not show in the returns of the tester at that level of testing.
Whilst Y-DNA can predict the closeness of a relationship, it is unable to pinpoint the exact individual in the same way that autosomal DNA testing can. The FTDNA programme uses genetic distance (GD) or the differences, and on which markers they have occurred (some markers mutate far quicker than others) to estimate the number of generations that separate the tester and a match from their most recent common ancestor (MRCA). This is returned using the ‘Time Predictor’ or the ‘TiP’ tool which gives the time frame in generations. A generation usually equates to between 20 and 30 years, so by saying a generation equates to approximately 25 years, and, multiplying this by the number of generations predicted by the FTDNA TiP tool, will give an approximate timeframe to MRCA in years. See example from Pearcy DNA Project below:
Pearcy (and variant spellings) DNA Project
As reported back in August, David Pearcy tested his Y-DNA in order to delve into his deeper paternal Ancestry. He had one very interesting match with the variant surname of Piercy, whose family were known to have come from a similar geographical area in Northumberland. Initially the match had only tested to 12 markers, but crucially there were no differences at this level. The match then extended the number of markers tested to 111. This returned a genetic distance (GD) of 5. This equates to 5 differences, 1 of which occurred between 12 and 25, another between 25 and 37, a further 2 appeared between 37 and 67 and the final difference occurred between 67 and 111 markers.
Using the TiP tool and extending the results displayed to every generation rather than grouping them to four years enables a greater degree of ‘estimation’ as to how many generations have passed since the MRCA lived.
Using a percentage of between 98 – 99.9% (but may be more, or may be less accurate) places their most recent common ancestor somewhere between 16 and 22 generations, or very approximately, to have lived 400 & 550 years ago.
For me personally, this is quite exciting as it suggests the Pearcy family had an established surname and were living in a close geographic area around Wooler & Ford in Northumberland around the time of the Battle of Flodden in 1513. To draw any more meaningful conclusions however, we need a far bigger Y-DNA sample from male Pearcy/Piercy/Percy & other variant spellings from around the globe. David and I have created a Pearcy DNA project through Family Tree DNA so if you are a Pearcy, or know a Pearcy then please either get in touch or point them in our direction. It is open to all, not just Y-DNA testers, and is completely free to join.
https://www.familytreedna.com/groups/pearcy-piercy-dna-project/about
(Please note, you will also need to sign-up to Family Tree DNA to join the project if you have not already done so. You do NOT need to purchase a DNA test from FTDNA to join. Registration is completely free of charge at www.familytreedna.com/autosomal-transfer & you do not need to transfer your atDNA if you do not wish to.)
https://www.familytreedna.com/groups/pearcy-piercy-dna-project/about
(Please note, you will also need to sign-up to Family Tree DNA to join the project if you have not already done so. You do NOT need to purchase a DNA test from FTDNA to join. Registration is completely free of charge at www.familytreedna.com/autosomal-transfer & you do not need to transfer your atDNA if you do not wish to.)
Top Tip – The Genetic Distance in Y-DNA Test Results
The Genetic Distance figure given by FTDNA reflects the number of DIFFERENCES that have occurred between two testers, NOT the number of generations. To find the estimated time lapse to the most recent common ancestor shared with a match, USE the TiP TOOL. This gives the estimated time lapse in generations. To approximate this in years, multiply by 25.
Note the two non Pearcy surnames. Do Pearcy & Pearson have the same surname origins perhaps?
Common Question - Matches of the same surname as myself match me at 12 markers but not 111
The most common reason for this is that the genetic distance becomes too great to be relevant and therefore the match at 12 markers is dropped from the match list at higher levels of testing. Another very common reason and one which is easily overlooked is that the match hasn’t actually tested to the same number of markers as yourself.
Top Tip – Check the level the match has tested to.
Look at matches with the same surname as yourself and check the level that match has tested to. This information appears after the match’s name. If they have tested to a much lower level than yourself this may be one reason why they do not appear at a higher level. This can be remedied by the match raising the number of markers they have tested. In most cases there is no need to retest and the sample supplied for initial testing can be used.
Y-DNA Matches with Different Surnames
Any form of DNA testing carries the risk of unearthing unwelcome family secrets but there are many other reasons why any DNA test may not yield the results expected. Second families, adoption and illegitimacy are just a few. In Scottish clan projects, DNA that fails to match with the surname of the chief also results in unnecessary disappointment for some. Whilst kinship was at the core of the clan system, many clan followers or dependents adopted the name of the ruling family even where there was no blood tie.
Daughtering Out & Inheritance
Another reason surnames may not reflect those expected can be due to a change of name. Historically this sometimes occurred amongst landed families when it became extinct in the male line, in other words ran out of sons or other immediate male relatives of the same surname. Those inheriting the land or heritable estate may have descended down the female line and changed their name on inheritance. A change of surname to reflect maternal line inheritance is a topic I have touched on before, when Thomas Wood assumed the surname of his uncle Shafto Craster on inheriting the estate in 1837. (The Christian name Shafto itself being derived from a surname.)
There are also instances where younger sons in landed families have inherited from mothers or grandmothers and have relinquished their patrilineal surname in favour of the female line from which they have inherited. A prime example of this is John Ogle, (younger son of Robert Ogle d.1410) who on inheriting the castle and manor of Bothal brought to the Ogle family by his grandmother Helen Bertram adopted the surname Bertram himself. Helen was herself a sole heiress so John in adopting her patrilineal surname for himself resurrected a line which had itself become dormant in the male line.
The most common reason a Y-DNA match does not share a surname, however, is that it predates the introduction of surnames themselves.
Surname Origins
As research progresses back in time it inevitably reaches a point where surnames cease to exist or have not followed the hereditary pattern of today. Hereditary surnames, or where the same surname passes unchanged down through subsequent generations in the male line, came into use following the Norman invasion of 1066. Before this time, and indeed in some places for some time afterwards, ‘surnames’, second names ‘cognomen’ or ‘bynames’ followed the Anglo-Saxon tradition which was more akin to an ‘identifier’ within a community and changed with every passing generation. They were often drawn from places names, topographical features, occupations, patronymics (son of ‘x’), less commonly matronymics (son of ‘x’ female), nicknames and personal idiosyncrasies.
Entry for Plesingho, Essex for Humphrey 'aurei testiculi' Tenant in Chief, more commonly referred to in the vernacular as Humphrey 'Goldenbollocks'. Image Courtesy of Professor J.J.N. Palmer through the Open Domesday website.
As the first ‘national’ survey undertaken in post-Norman Britain, the names recorded in the Domesday Book are therefore indicative of the early surnames in use at that time. An interesting study into Anglo-Saxon bynames recorded in the Domesday Book by medieval historian Thijs Porck, can be found at Anglo-Saxon bynames: Old English nicknames from the Domesday Book. The contents of the Domesday Book can be found online at the ‘Open Domesday’ with more information about at ‘The Hull Domesday Project’.
The Domesday survey was neither representative of the population (as it only listed those with landholdings), nor did it encompass the whole of England. As can be seen from the interactive map on the Open Domesday website, Northumberland and Durham were notable exceptions. The earliest ‘Domesday’ equivalent for the region is the ‘Boldon Buke’ a survey undertaken approaching 100 years later in 1183 on behalf of the Bishop of Durham, Hugh Pudsey. Surnames’ of any recognisable kind are absent, with those few individuals who have been named either identified as a ‘son of’ (filius) ‘Richard son of Ulkil’, ‘de’ meaning of a place ‘Adam de Thornton’ & ‘Wynday de Grindon’ or by a nickname or byname, ‘Elfald Langstirap’.
Although the practice of hereditary surnames had been adopted and was in common usage in England by the mid fourteenth century, the north and in particularly the areas of the former Marches with Scotland were slower to follow suite. Dr Jackson Armstrong of Aberdeen University has made an in-depth study into matters of Lordship, Kinship and Surnames along the English border during the fifteenth century in his book ‘England’s Northern Frontier, Conflict and Local Society in the Fifteenth-Century Scottish Marches’. His findings and examples supporting the notion and depth of ties on kinship make fascinating reading and illustrate the significance of collateral paternal as well as maternal line inheritance. (I appreciate the book is not cheap, but for those of you serious about your ‘Borders Ancestry’ this brand-new book comes highly recommended. Part II will be of particular interest to those researching the riding ‘Surnames’ associated with the Border Reivers.)
Image of Chest in which the Domesday Books were stored from circa 1600. Courtesy of The National Archives E31/4
In his new study Dr Armstrong has used 15th century Gaol Delivery books as sources and evidence of use of hereditary surnames. He found that
‘The later Middle Ages were a transitional period in which older bynames co-existed with newer hereditary surnames as a type of cognoma. Consequently, it is not always possible to distinguish one from the other.’[1]
As outlined earlier, by-names were drawn from ‘occupations, topographical features, toponyms the body and personal characteristics, animal names and interpersonal relationships denoting kinship (and so taking the suffix -cousin, -son or -daughter) among numerous other potential sources and combinations. Employment was one such source …’[2] Throughout the book Armstrong uses clear and interesting examples to illustrate his findings:
- Gibbe Roderfordman for a servant of Gilbert Rutherford
- John Twysontheday, for harper named for an ‘event’
And uses of patronymic naming patterns used simultaneously alongside by-name surnames
- William Andreson of Tynedale alias William Stockhalgh the son of Andrew Stockhalgh
- Little William Robson son of Robert Joly
And of double patronymic
- John Johnson the son of John Thomson
Although Armstrong notes that these types of combinations are more uncommon in east of the region. He further notes examples of compound names
- William Robynson Hynne
- Richard Jackson Lambee
‘as reasonable to conjecture, described a family relationship by adding a patronym to a hereditary surname in order to assist with identification’.[3]
By todays way of thinking the use of middle names may suggest the maternal line surname, but clearly in this 15th century context this is not the case. Extreme care must therefore be taken before drawing conclusions on early lines of decent, particularly where patronymic naming patterns are used.
‘Tithes’ – nearly everyone has heard of this historic form of taxation and associates them to with payments to the Church, but what exactly were tithes and why are their records so valuable to historical research?
Peter Breughal the younger. The collection of Tithes circa 1616. Wiki Commons
A ‘tithe’, literally meaning one tenth, at the inception of the tithing system in the 6th – 8th centuries, was essentially a tax on agriculture originally designed to benefit the established church and the clergy. Unlike other forms of taxation tithes were a burden born solely by those whose income arose from agriculture and the land, either directly, or indirectly. Before being commuted to a monetary equivalent by the Commutation Act of 1836, tithes were often paid in kind. They were based on ‘one tenth’ of the natural gain of a crop, herd or flock. They were, however, imposed on the gross product, with no allowance taken or made for seed sown, fertiliser or land improvement.
By 1836, the method of collecting tithes in kind had become outdated and was no longer fit for purpose. The decision was made to abolish the ‘in kind’ system and replace it with equivalent monetary payments or ‘rentcharge’. (In Scotland, where Tithes were known as Tiends, a form of commutation had been introduced in 1663. Therefore, they were not included in the surveys or maps produced as a result of English reforms of 1836.)
In truth, however, like anything that has been around for almost a thousand years, the ‘story’ of tithes before they were commuted to monetary payments in 1836, is rather more complex than it first appears As so often seems to be the case, those at the ‘top’ stood to gain far more from tithes than those at the ‘bottom’!
But what exactly was subject to tithe payments and just who was entitled to what?
Tithes could be subject to some degree of manipulation and regional variation according to land use, and, like some manorial customs, what was liable to be ‘tithed’ varied from parish to parish. Nonetheless tithes fell into three classifications; predial, mixed and personal.
Classifications of Tithes
Predial Tithes
These related to the ‘fruits of the earth’, so anything that grew in it, or from it, such as corn, hay and other crops. It also often included wood. These were the most valuable class of tithes.
These related to the ‘fruits of the earth’, so anything that grew in it, or from it, such as corn, hay and other crops. It also often included wood. These were the most valuable class of tithes.
Mixed Tithes
Mixed Tithes related largely to animals such as lambs, calves, colts, or to animal products such as wool, milk, eggs etc.
Mixed Tithes related largely to animals such as lambs, calves, colts, or to animal products such as wool, milk, eggs etc.
Personal Tithes
These tithes were payable on the gains of labour in related agricultural industries such as corn milling or fishing.
These tithes were payable on the gains of labour in related agricultural industries such as corn milling or fishing.
Tithes were grouped further into Great Tithes and Small or Lesser Tithes:
Great Tithes were paid to the Rector (administrative leader) of a parish, who may be a resident incumbent i.e. bishop, prior, prioress or an establishment such as a monastery, nunnery, college etc. These comprised the most valuable Predial Tithes or Corn Tithes.
Lesser or Small Tithes were paid to the Vicar appointed to a parish and performing a parochial service. These tithes were drawn from the Mixed Tithes, so lamb, wool, eggs etc.
Tithe Collection & Satire
Before the ‘Commutation Act of 1836’ when payments in kind were replaced by a monetary equivalent or rent charge, it was the means in which Tithes were collected and paid that many found so repugnant. Great tithes or corn tithes were often left in the field from where ‘tithe collectors’ appointed by the owner would arrange collection and/or sale. The recipient of the Lesser Tithes was also perfectly entitled and within their rights to enter a farm or property at any time to collect their dues. This custom naturally lent itself to satire, with the local ‘incumbent’ often the butt of the joke.
 Satirical Depiction of 'The Tythe Pig' Wiki Commons | The Tythe Pig In Country Village Lives a Vicar, Fond – as all are – of Tythes and Liquor, To mirth his ears are seldom Shut, He’ll Crack a Joke, and laugh at Smut; But when his Tythes he gathers in, True Parson then – no coin! No grin On Fish, On Flesh, On Bird, On Beast, Alike lays hold the Churlish Priest Hob’s Wife and Sow – as Gossips tell Both at a time in Pieces fell; The Parson comes, the Pig he claims And the good Wife with Taunts inflames; Bust she quite arch bow’d low and Smil’d Kept back the Pig and held the Child; The Priest look’d warm, the Wife look’d big, Z…ds, Sir! quoth she, no Child, no Pig Boitard & Müller, The Tythe Pig, 1751 |
As a clergyman’s daughter, author Jane Austen was extremely familiar with the English tithe system and the topic of a clergyman’s ‘living’ often appears in her novels. Her obsequious character ‘Mr Collins’ in Pride and Prejudice ranked "making such an agreement for tythes as may be beneficial to himself and not offensive to his patron" his first and foremost duty as a clergyman. As a rector, like Jane’s father, her character was entitled to both the Great and Lesser Tithes of the parish, and to their collection.
1784 'Payment in Kind or The Sow's Revenge'
Humour aside, the payment and collection of tithes, particularly those made in kind has been described as a ‘vexatious impost’ and formed the root cause of many a dispute. However, tithes were not designed to be contentious, but more as a means of bringing communities together. In writing about the significance of Tithes during the eighteenth century, Daniel Cummins argues
Although tithes could cause contention and friction, their real significance lies in the numerous relationships they created within eighteenth-century English society. These relationships constituted some of the most important everyday economic, contractual and social connections between individuals and were a central feature of parochial life during this period.[1]
Impropriation & Impropriators
In reality, however, the reformation and dissolution of the monasteries saw much Tithe entitlement pass from the church, to the Crown and from there into the hands of laymen (impropriators), in a process known as impropriation.[2] It has been estimated that in the period post-1530 up to one third of all great tithes were in the ownership of laymen. Furthermore, great tithes could be traded, i.e. bought, sold or leased by both the church and layman owners.
… tithe purchase involved an agreement made before harvest. The tithe purchaser entered into a contract with the tithe owner by which he or she agreed to pay a certain sum for the bought tithes on appointed days. Tithes sold in this way made up a significant portion of all the grain which reached the market.[3]
It is thought that by the time the Commutation Act was passed in 1836, 25% of the value of all tithes was in ownership outside the church.
Tithe Records for Historical Study
Tithes records are essential for the comparative study of acreages farmed, land use, cropping patterns, yields and crop values throughout history which is also helped by the uniformity of the ways in which the data was collected and compiled. I myself drew on the analysis of tithe data from Durham Cathedral Priory Muniments for evidence relating to corn production in the North East at the time of the Battle of Flodden in 1513.[4] For the Family Historian, however, the records and maps generated as a direct result of the 1836 reforms are of particular interest.
Composition and Modus
Payments in kind had been abolished in many areas before the reforms of 1836. Those made in monetary equivalents before 1836 came in two forms; a ‘composition’ which was subject to periodic revision, or termination by either party or a ‘modus’ which was a permanent charge attached to a particular product or piece of land. Where payments in kind persisted at apportionment, or had already been commuted to compositions or other monetary equivalents, specific details can often be found in the accompanying Articles of Agreement to the 1836 revisions.
Advertisement taken from the Newcastle Courant 31 March 1781. Note the 'Modus' paid in lieu of Corn and Hay tithes.
The records generated by the reforms produced, a map, an apportionment schedule and a file between the years 1841 and 1860. These records were also produced in triplicate:
an original and two copies of every confirmed instrument of apportionment. The originals are now in The National Archives. The two copies were deposited with the registrar of the diocese and with the incumbents of and churchwardens of the parish. In many cases the copies and subsequent altered apportionments are now deposited in the relevant local record office.[5]
The Genealogist & Tithe Records Online
The good news is that for those with access to the internet the records are also available online (along with other record sources unique to the site) with a diamond subscription to ‘The Genealogist’. Furthermore, the records can be searched by place, not just by person, so if your interest happens to be in a particular farm, village or town the tithe data provides a fascinating snapshot in time.
Examples and snippets relating to Horncliffe & Norham Mains.
Extract of the Tithe Schedule of 1844 for Horncliffe Loanend. Reproduced courtesy of The Genealogist and The National Archives
As examples of the type of information that can be sourced from tithe records, here are a few snippets that I found useful in the course of research into my own family. It was already known from the records that over the years the Smith family had interests, both owned and tenanted in several farms around Horncliffe and Norham, most notably Loanend, however the information lacked specifics. The tithe schedule dated 1844 for Horncliffe provided the following information:
- George Smith owned and occupied 194 acres and 32 perches at East Loanend himself.
- He also occupied a further 150 acres, 1 rood and 6 perches at West Loanend, owned by Mary White and Jane Simpson.
- The maiden names of these two women was Nicholson. Mary White was George’s mother-in- law, and Jane Simpson, her sister and George’s wife Grace Ann’s aunt.
- Alexander Smith, the owner and occupier of 55 acres 35 perches of land at Loaned at 7 above was Alexander Smith of Gallagate Farm, Norham, husband of George’s cousin Agnes Young. Agnes Young’s father was Aaron Young who drowned in River Whiteadder on New Year’s Day 1822.
- Also listed is William Mather at 5, owner of 10 acres 1 rood 18 perches occupied by Richard Brown. What is most interesting here is that he did so as executor of the Will of Thomas Naters. Thomas Naters was a reclusive millionaire who died at his Schloss in Switzerland in 1836. The tithe records would suggest that he held an interest in property at both Longridge and Horncliffe at the time of his death.
Accompanying Tithe Map from the 1844 Survey of Horncliffe Loanend. Reproduced courtesy of The Genealogist and The National Archives, Kew. Tithe Maps such as these are accessible online, along with many other unique record sources with a subscription to 'The Genealogist' https://www.thegenealogist.co.uk/
The land ‘owned’ and occupied by George Smith jnr at Horncliffe is represented on the accompanying map by the number ‘9’, and the land he occupied which was rented from his wife’s relatives by the number 6. (NB. It is more usual to see land owned and occupied represented by a series of numbers, not just one, with the land use of each parcel also given.)
The Articles of Agreement relating to the apportion of tithes make fascinating reading too and are packed with additional information and local idiosyncrasies. Those arising from a meeting which took place on the 17th August 1839, relating to Horncliffe confirm that prior to the 1836 reform, Small Tithes with the exception of Lamb and Wool, which were leased from the Dean & Chapter of Durham by the Executors of James Bell of Berwick upon Tweed decd, had still been payable in kind. A modus of ‘one shilling’ had been in place as payable in lieu of hay tithes.
Reference to the Tithes for Lamb and Wool in the Articles of Agreement for Norham Mains attached to the Tithe Survey of 1844. Reproduced by kind permission of 'The Genealogist and The National Archives, Kew.
Similarly, the ‘Articles of Agreement’ relating to the Tithes in the Township of Norham Mains confirm that payments had still be made in kind there too – both Great and Small, except the following for which ‘customary’ payments had been made as follows:
- For every Cow and Calf 2d
- For every Cow not in Calf 1d halfpenny
- For every score of Ewes milked 4d
- For every Mare in Foal 4d
- For every Hive of Bees 8d
There is even more historical information which can be extracted from the records relating to the commutation of Tithes, not least the values attributed to corn, given in bushels.[6]
Extracted from the Articles of Agreement attached to the Tithe Survey of 1844 for the Township of Norham Mains. Reprooduced by kind permission of The Genealogist and The National Archives, Kew.
There are many taxes from which historical information can be gleaned, but none have the longevity or depth of information as Tithes. The above is a just a brief overview designed to provide background, context and an explanation of a few of the terms that are likely to be encountered during your own foray into the world of Tithes and associated information. There are many excellent books and essays on the subject of the Tithe system, a few of which are listed below. In addition 'Tithe Surveys for Historians' by Roger J.P. Kain & Hugh C. Prince, Philimore, 2000 provides an in-depth explanation and background to the information the surveys will provide. Another very helpful overview is available from Family Search at
https://www.familysearch.org/wiki/en/England_Tithe_Records_(National_Institute)
https://www.familysearch.org/wiki/en/England_Tithe_Records_(National_Institute)
[1] Daniel Cummins, ‘The Social Significance of Tithes in Eighteenth Century England’ The English Historical Review, Vol. CXXVIII No. 534, Oxford, 2013 pp
[2] When entitlement passed to the church or religious houses it was ‘appropriated’.
[3] B Ben Dodds, ‘Peasants and Production in the Medieval North-East’, Regions and Regionalism in History, Woodbridge, 2007, p.162.
[4] Ben Dodds, ‘Peasants and Production in the Medieval North-East’, Regions and Regionalism in History, Woodbridge, 2007; Ben Dodds, ‘Peasants, Landlords and Production between the Tyne and the Tees, 1349-1450’, Regions and Regionalisms in History, Woodbridge, 2005.
[5] The National Archives
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/information-management/legislation/other-archival-legislation/tithe-records/
[6] There were approximately 8 bushels to the quarter and 4 quarters to the avoirdupois ton which equated to 20 cwt, or 2,000lbs, = 62.5lbs per bushel.
[2] When entitlement passed to the church or religious houses it was ‘appropriated’.
[3] B Ben Dodds, ‘Peasants and Production in the Medieval North-East’, Regions and Regionalism in History, Woodbridge, 2007, p.162.
[4] Ben Dodds, ‘Peasants and Production in the Medieval North-East’, Regions and Regionalism in History, Woodbridge, 2007; Ben Dodds, ‘Peasants, Landlords and Production between the Tyne and the Tees, 1349-1450’, Regions and Regionalisms in History, Woodbridge, 2005.
[5] The National Archives
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/information-management/legislation/other-archival-legislation/tithe-records/
[6] There were approximately 8 bushels to the quarter and 4 quarters to the avoirdupois ton which equated to 20 cwt, or 2,000lbs, = 62.5lbs per bushel.
